| Period or Event | Time-Frame | Overview |
| Epipaleotlithic | 17,000-8,500 BC | The Levant was much more lush over 4,000 years ago. |
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| Late Epipaleotlithic | 12,500-10,000 BC | |
| Natufian | 10,800-8,300 BC | Pre-Neolithic people lived for two million years by gathering seeds, fruits and tubers from the wild, and by hunting game animals (gazelle, ibex, fallow deer and red deer). The Natufian is largerly hunter-gatherer. Incipient farming. Hunter-gatherer communities growing increasingly sedentary. Earliest domestication of plants (possibly like wheat and barley) and early animal domestication (such as the dog). Another nice thing about Natufian right before Neolythic was the development of aesthetic like lots of jewelry. Based on lithics, regional cultures of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic developed at the close of the Natufian. |
| Neolithic Levant | 8,300-4,500 BC | In the Neolithic (11,000-6,000 BC), people began subsisting by cultivating cereals and legumes, domesticating sheep and goats, hunting wild game, gathering wild seed and fruit and product trading. Amidst the 5,000 Neolithic years, the Near East shifted from small hunting bands to agricultural villages (.2-12 ha) within fertile Levantine zones. The Pre-Pottery Neolithic has all Pottery Neolithic features except pottery. Falling at the bands/tribes level, theories on how this Neolithic development occurred are here.
Levantine flora were/are Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian. Sparse rainfall was regular enough during the winter to support farming. Early Neolithic sites (ie, Jericho and Netiv Ha-Gdud) have been found beneath alluvial fans of wadis out of hills. This indicates that watercourses have changed their flow, burying some sites with alluvium). Natufian sites — often in caves — are usually alluvium-free and thus more easily found than Neolithic sites.The Neolithic is also defined by the secondary products revolution and horticulture. Polished stone axes, pottery and domesticated cereals and animals developed quicker in the European Neolithic than in the Levantine Neolithic. Neolithic cultures had a farmer-hunter economy that relied upon raising of cereals and pulse, and the the hunting of wild animals. Their sites are often buried under alluvium. Alluvial fans were easy to clear for simple farming, and inundation ensured soil fertility. However, as watercourses changed, stones covered the abandoned sites and made them very difficult to find. Instead of Natufian exploitation of wild cereals, legumes, seeds and fruits, a clear shift occured in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A toward systematic cultivation and reduced gathering. Hunting and fishing during the Natufian continued to a lesser extent into the Neolithic. Regarding lithics, Neolithic knapping and tool preparation techniques are markedly different from the Natufian. Also, microliths decreased sharply from ~40% (during the Natufian) to ~20% of total lithics. These changes were seen in agricultural areas first, then a few hundred years later in desert areas. Hunter-gatherers could exchange hunted meat, plants and desert fruits. Agricultural societies could exchange food products, household items, and practical and decorative lithics. Materials that traveled great distance includes obsidian, asphalt, greenstone and salt. Obisidian was most commonly traded, and radioactive analysis has traced Levantine and Transjordan obsidian mostly to eastern Anatolia. Trade of domesticated plants and animals is illuminated by their locations over time. |
| Pre-Pottery Neolythic A | 8,300-7,300 BC | PPNA continues Natufian traditions, including dog domestication and early domestication of certain plants like wheat. The presence of grinding-stones, querns and bowls indicate a shift toward domestication of plants. Also, the PPNA is marked by plano-convex instead of hog-backed bricks. In addition, there were possible fortifications in the PPNA. The Khiamian (hunter-gatherer) and Sultanian (hunter-farmer) cultures were notable. |
| Pre-Pottery Neolithic B | 7,300-5,500 BC | The PPNB brings lime plaster statues, molded skull burial customs, recitlinear houses (and lime plastered floors), distinct lithic radition (unique points, new tools) and white ware White ware consists of simple vessels made from lime and ash, giving the appearance of soft limestone. |
| Pottery Neolithic | 6,000-5,000 BC 5,800-4,800 BC |
The Pottery Neolithic’s material culture is related to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B and C, and is distinguished by the development of ceramic. Settlements shifted from marginal areas to more humid areas, allowing more comfortable living. Yarmoukian, where the Yarmouk Valley pours into the Jordan Valley, is a classic northern Pottery Neolithic A site; there are extensive lithics and occasional ceramics and fired clays. Wadi Rabah is exemplary of the northern Pottery Neolithic B. To the south, Jericho spans the Pottery Neolithic A and B. |
| Period or Event | Time-Frame | Overview | ||||||||||
| Chalcolithic Period | 4,300-3,500 BC | The Chalcolithic Period was marked by endogenous change, meaning the change was from intercultural influence. Chalcolithic sites have bigger and more numerous farming villages than Neolythic sites. Also, there are regional and unique Chalcolithic cultures:
The variety and detail of Chalcolithic materials indicate specialized skills passed across generations:
Although plants and animals were domesticated during the Neolithic (agriculture), the Chalcolithic is marked by horticulture and the secondary products revolution. Fig (ficus carica) domestication was Neolithic, but during the Chalcolithic there was a horticultural explosion and olives (olea europaea), grapes (vitis vinifera), pistachio nuts (pistacia atlantica) and dates (phoenix dactylifera l.) were all domesticated. Golan contains olive pits; Ghassulian likely had irrigated olive crops; olives grown on the western flanks of the Judean hills and Mount Carmel were likely not cultivated; and in Nahal Mishmar and Ghassul, grapes were grown. In addition to horticulture, the Chalcolithic is marked by the secondary products revolution whereby animals were being used in secondary ways. The Chalcolithic Levant was at the level of chiefdom:
The Chalcolithic Period in Ancient Israel overlaps with end of Predynastic culture in Northern Egypt (End of Badarian (6000-4000 BC) and beginning of Amratian/Naqada I (4000-3600 BC)). Subdivisions are not particularly relaible: region assemblages, no overlpa between assemblages to provide subdivide phases; dates relative to earlier (Neolythic) and later (EB) phases. Northern culture replaced before southern culture complicating chronology. Climate Change? The climate region was likely changing, but this is uncertain. Intensive settlement in arid regions (along Wadi Beersehba in Negev, for exmaple) is suggestive of water management, increased humidity or both. Wadi is the arabic word for creek. Ayn is spring. Chalcolithc Sites — classic neolithic sites abandoned (ie, Jericho). marginal areas occupied (Negev). Regional cultures (Golan & Galilee, Ghassulian, Beersheba, Coast). Also, Gilat and Shiqmin. Wadi Rabah was notable. |
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| Period or Event | Time-Frame | Overview | ||||||||
| Early Bronze Age I | 3,500 to 3,050 BC | Contemporary with Late Predynastic and Early First Dynasty in Egypt. The Early Bronze Age I is marked by rural proto-urban (unwalled) cities. The EB I is continuous with the Chalcolithic, especially in the north. Houses are mostly either: apsidal, with a curve at one end; ellipsoidal, with both ends curving; or, occasionally, caves. Burial customs included: caves, most commonly; shaft tombs; charnel houses, where bodies were laid out like in a tomb; nawamis, field stone chambers which still stand in the Sinai today; and cremation. The Canaanean Blade first appeared in the EB I (no sooner), a blade with a trapezoidal cross-section. Later in the Early Bronze Age I, Egypt begins interacting with the Negev, South Coast and Sinai. There were regional ceramic families. A notable site is Bab edh-Dhra, inhabited from 3,1000-2,000 BC. | ||||||||
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| Early Bronze Age II | 3,050-2,700 BC |
Contemporary with Late I and II Dynasties of Egypt. The Early Bronze Age II is the Southern Levant’s first urban period. Notable Early Bronze Age II finds include the Tell Kineret Tomb, Arad and et-Tell (Biblical Ai). As the trade infrastructure developed, Egypt no longer required a permanent presence on the coastal plains. However, Egyptians had a huge presence in the Negev and Sinai to exploit the region’s valued metals, especially copper. Egyptian presence in the Levant is confirmed by Abydos Ware, a valuable pottery native to the Negev and Sinai that has been found in tombs in Abydos and other Egyptian towns. |
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| Early Bronze Age III | 2,700 to 2,300 BC |
Contemporary with III-VI Dynasties in Egypt. The primary distinction between Early Bronze Ages II and III is the emergence of Khirbet Kerak Ware (KKW). Construction of temples continued, with a highlight being the enormous altar in EB III layer at Megiddo. The crescentric axe (aka epsilon axe) is an unusually shaped tool that first appears in the EB III. The Southern Levant’s relationship with Egypt evolved: Egyptians were present in EB I; Egyptians left in EB II but continued strong trade; and in EB III, Egypt and Byblos (access point for Lebanon’s timber) began direct maritime trade and bypassed the Southern Levant. The Early Bronze Age III brought violence between Egypt and the Southern Levant, clearly evidenced in: the Wadi Mighar inscriptions; the 5th dynasty tomb of Ante at Deshahe in Egypt; other reliefs; and Autobiography of Weni, a text by a royal palace worker named Weni (2,373-2,296 BC). |
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| Early Bronze Age IV | 2,300 to 1,900 BC |
Contemporary with VII-XI Dynasties in Egypt. Also known as the Intermediate Bronze Age, the Early Bronze Age IV was markedly different between the Northern and Sourthern Levant. The Northern Levant continued urbanizing, and the particularly sophisticated kingdom of Ebla even developed its own form of writing. Meanwhile, the Southern Levant underwent a gradual urban collapse over hundreds of years, leaving behind few artifacts and no hints of writing. Unmaintained fortification walls eroded away, leaving cities unwalled. Some urban centers were abandoned, leading to a boom in rural settlement and pastoral nomadism. Pastoralism worked well because wool could be produced (eating the animal itself was rare) and there was a high demand for wool in Syria and Egypt. Below are possibilities why the Southern Levant de-urbanized during the Early Bronze Age IV:
Burial customs included: shaft tombs (Jericho); megalithic dolments, made of a horizontal stone atop upright stones (Golan Heights; Upper Galilee); tumuli (aka cairns), mounds of stone and debris (central Negev); cists, rectangular burials; burial caves; and pits. A notable Early Bronze Age IV structure is Beer Resisim, an encampment for an extended family or small clan. Beer Resisim was occupied over a ~400 year period for ~30-50 years at a time. Similar to Beer Reisisim is Ein Ziq, also located in an arid region that is now so dry that modern bedouins dare not breach it due to its utter inability to support life. Another important site is Ain Samiya, where a silver goblet was found that depicts Tiamat, Narnuk, other Mesopotamian icons, and even Mesopotamians themselves holding up a sun disk. This shows a strong Syrian and Mesopotamian influence. While Early Bronze Age IV ceramics fit well into the overall Early Bronze Age’s assemblage, there are some deviations: the wheel is limitedly used, indicating ceramics are purely practical rather than an art form; caliciform wares, a chalice arising from a North Levantine influence; painted or incised parallel lines; and a return of regionalism. One regional item found only in the EB IV is the four-spouted lamp. Four wicks together burn oil four times faster than a single wick, and one explanation is that people began using fish oil, which burns dimmer than olive oil and required more wicks. Also, presence of the fenestrated axe continues from the EB III. |
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| EB → MB |
After urbanism’s rise in the EB II-III and collapse in EB III, it returns in MB IIA-C.
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| Middle & Late Bronze Political Organization | Middle and Late Bronze Age (1900-1200 BC) political organization was limited to city-states with a high degree of complexity. The kingdom of Ashkelon has yielded textual sources attesting to several Amorite kings. Mechanisms driving Amorite spread included merchantile activity (trade ports developed into civilizations) and mercenary activity. Amorites moved into the highlands, which were perfect for cultivating olives and orchards; these highlands became the epicenter of power. | |||||||||
| Middle Bronze Age I Middle Bronze IIA |
1,900-1,700 BC |
Contemporary with XII and even early XIII Dynasties in Egypt. The Middle Bronze Age I (aka Middle Bronze Age IIA, with EB IV → MB I) was marked by an emergence of northern states, and the arrival of the new Amorite ethnic group (originating ~2,000 BC in Syria and later coalescing into an ethnic group). Material culture peaks ~1,700 BC, although fortified cities already existed: Tel-Ashkalon (~ 50 hectares, largest site north of Egypt); Tel-Burgah; and Tel-Kabri. A distinction of the Middle Bronze Age IIA is red burnishing, likely an attempt to imitate metal vessels. Egypt provides all major textual sources, including: execration texts; Tale of Sinuhe and Beni Hasan reliefs. The Beni Hasan reliefs are from an Egyptian monarch’s tomb, and depict: asiatics (Amorites) arriving with all their belongings; Semites and Egyptians peacefully interacting during the Middle Bronze Age; and a caravan of asiatic donkeys. |
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| Middle Bronze Age II Middle Bronze IIB |
1,700-1,640 BC | Contemporary with Late XIII Dynasty of Egypt. The Middle Bronze Age II (aka Middle Bronze Age IIB, with EB IV → MB I) was marked by emergence of southern states. As Egypt began to unravel, so did hegemony by its centralized government. Levantine Middle Bronze Age II developments include: fortification and enclosure of the water system in Jerusalem; and consistency amongst MB II/III gates, which are the weakest parts of a fortification. These two developments indicate that communities systematically addressed a common threat. Major textual sources include: the Mari texts, preserved by Hammurabi’s campaign in Mesopotamia; Alalakh VII texts in the northern Levant; many isolated tablets in the southern Levant, including Hazor, Shechem, Hebron and other. The 66 ha town of Hazor: had an upper and lower town over a 66 ha region; was mentioned in the Mari texts, differentiating it from Ashkalon; and yielded a handful of MB and LB cuneiform tablets. Timnah (Tell Batash), a town on the southern coastal plane, is another notable Middle Bronze Age II site. | ||||||||
| Middle Bronze III Middle Bronze IIC |
1,640-1,530 BC | Contemporary with XV Dynasty (Hyksos Period) of Egypt.. The Middle Bronze Age III (aka Middle Bronze IIC, with EB IV → MB I) was marked by the Hyksos kingdom emerging in Egypt and terminates when the Hyksos are expelled from Egypt. Amorites ruled much of the Levant until Hurrians from modern central Syria (mostly east of the Euphrates) pushed the Amorites into the nothern Levant. Long-distance trade was extensive, including maritime transport of opium from Cyprus to the Levant. Unique to the MB III is: chocolate-on-white ware (~1,500 BC); discontinuation of red burnish; and Tell el-Yehudiyeh Ware, a conglomeration of ceramic forms featuring extensive anthropomorphism. Major textual sources include: Hebron tablet; Manethos’ account of Hyksos’ rule in the Egyptian town of Avaris, preserved by Josephus in ~100 AD. | ||||||||
| Late Bronze Age | General textual sources for the Levantine Late Bronze Age include: temple and tomb reliefs and inscriptions from Egypt’s New Kingdom; and Late Bronze Age tablets, from Alalakh, Qatna, Hazor, Kumidi, Megiddo, Beth-Shean, Aphek, Ta’anach and more. | |||||||||
| Late Bronze Age IA | 1,530-1,470 BC | Contemporary with Dynasty XVII to Thutmose III in Egypt.. The Late Bronze Age IA: begins with Hyksos’ conquest of Egypt; continues through expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt; and ends with Thutmose III’s annual campaigns. The Late Bronze Age IA was highly destructive to the Levant, with over 30 sites identified as obliterated, and led to a population decline. The extent of Egypt’s fortresses in this region remains unclear, although by the Late Bronze Age II the Egyptians had built fortress way-stations and depots. Major textual sources include: the Alalakh archive from ~1,500-1,430 BC; Egyptian temple and tomb reliefs and inscriptions; and the Carnarvan Tablet. The Carnarvan Tablet describes how Levantine Amorite princes had divided up the land, pestering Egyptian settlements and causing Egypt to aggressively smite the asiatics. | ||||||||
| Battle of Megiddo | ~1,470 BC | During the ~60 years after Hatshepsu’s death, Canaanites mustered a coalition in an attempt to end centuries of Egyptian attack. The Canaanites met at Megiddo to fight the Egyptians, but the Egyptians discreetly took the Aruna pass and successfully sprung upon Megiddo from behind. After this, the Canaanites failed to coalesce again and resistance was on a mere local level. | ||||||||
| Late Bronze IB | 1,470-1,400 BC | Thutmose III to Amarna Period. | ||||||||
| Late Bronze IIA | 1,400-1,300 BC | Contemporary with Amarna period and aftermath in Egypt. Fortifications continued through 1,470 BC, but were rare by the Late Bronze Age II A (Hazor is an exception). Egypt balkanized the region, as it was easier to control vassals than to interact with the capital city of a territory. This decentralization of power led to de-urbanization. Mud brick fortifications quickly dissolved after a few winters without maintenance. Pastoral nomadism rose, as indicated by cemeteries found without settlements. | ||||||||
| Egypt’s Amarna Period | ~1,350 BC |
Egypt had solid control over the Levant during the Amarna Period (aka Pax Aegyptiaca), signified by the reigns of Amenhotep III and Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton). However, Egypt neglected to maintain the infrastructure of the region and city-states began to fight. This is evidenced by the highly regarded Amarna Letters Egypt neglects infrastructure maintenance in the region and the city-states start fighting. The Amarna Letters are very notable. Cuneiform tablet letters from ~1,350 BC from the court of Amenhotep III and IV at Amarna. Over 300 letters from rulers at Levantine towns to Egyptian pharaoh. International Exchange Networks! Evidenced by… Development of writing — a major development in age of booming internationalism Megiddo ivories — tiny furniture inlays and box components |
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| Late Bronze IIB | 1,300-1,200 BC | Dynasty 19 | ||||||||
| Bronze → Iron Age | Culprits for destructions at the so-called collapse of the Bronze Age: Aramaeans; ‘Apiru; other unknown groups; general social unrest; Israelites; Sea Peoples. The Philistines in Biblical Tradition: Bile (originate in Crete?) Arrive with Sea Peoples around 1,180 BC. Anachronistic references to Philistines in Gen 21:32-34; 26:1, 8, 14-15; and in Exodus 13:17; 15:14; 23:3. Story of Samson (Judges 13-16). | |||||||||
| Period or Event | Time-Frame | Overview | ||||||||||
| Iron IA | 1,175-1,125 BC | Philistine Stage 1 settlements (identified by monochrome ware, reminiscent of Mycenean Ware IIIC1B) formed a Philistine pentapolis of main hubs: Gaza; Ashkelon; Ashdod; Gath; and Ekron. Egypt installed forts near each site of the pentapolis to contain the Philistines. Philistine culture is marked by strong Aegean traits: monopoly on iron working (1 Sam 13:19-21); art and architecture; unique dietary customs, including pork; later assimilated into Canaanite culture. Egyptian king Ramses III ruled during this time, and his mortuary temple reliefs mentioned active Sea Peoples population groups: Sherden (likely heralding from Sardinia); Sikil (Sicily); Tursha (Etruria); Ekwesh (Ashhiyawa); Danuna (Danunim); Pelset (Philistines). Additional reliefs at Medinet Habu show mostly Sherden and Philistines being killed en masse. | ||||||||||
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| Iron IB | In Stage 2 settlements, the Philistines expanded north to Yarkon river and east into foothills (conflicting with Israelites). Monochrome ceramics were almost completely replaced by bichrome, with motifs remaining distinct from Canaanite and Egyptian ceramics. There was evidence of acculturation. The Philistines and the Mycenean motifs are very strongly similar, and likely heralded from Anatolia; they migrated over hundreds of years as they felt Hittite pressure. Philistine material culture includes: Ashdoda, a figure from Ashdod whose chair-like structure recalls Greece; and a goblet that cannot be set down, so that the user will be inebriated. | |||||||||||
| Iron IIA | 1,000-925 BC | Israel in the days of David and Solomon. At this point, archaeological sources (mostly destructions) and external sources are each very important. David’s reign is from 1,007-970 BC, ruled form Hebron and Jerusalem was not a seat of Israelite power yet; his son Slomon succeeds him. 1,000 BC accession of David and Philistine destructions; Solomon’s reign is 970-930 BC); Rehoboam’s and Jeroboam’s reigns start in 930 BC; 925 BC destructions due to Pharaoh Shishak (Sheshonq). In Jerusalem, there is an absence of evidence of David and Solomon (absent are their palaces, temple and administration). Also, no material culture correlates only to the 10th century BC; it all continues into the 9th century BC. | ||||||||||
| LBA Renaissance | Deurbanized Late Bronze Age settlements underwent a renaissance during the Iron IIA. A product of the LBA Renaissance was the United Monarchy, which was essentially run by warlords who oversaw a territorial kingdom with very few formal structures (ie, forts, palaces, etc).
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| Iron IIB | 925-720 BC | With respect to ancient Israel, the Iron II is split into: the Early Divided Monarchy (930-839 BC) and the Late Divided Monarchy (839-720 BC).
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| Iron IIC | 720-586 BC | |||||||||||
| Period or Event | Governor | Time-Frame | Overview |
| Neo-Babylonian Control | 604-538 BC | The Babylonian administration in Judah used an Assyrian approach of balkanization: Megiddu (capital at Megiddo); Samerina (Samaria); Dor; and Yehud (Mizpah). Between deportations and looting, Judah totally collapsed: there were almost 120 sites in the time of Josiah, and just over 40 sites in the time of Babylonia. The Babylonian presence in Judah is attested only via its army, which left behind scythian arrowheads (a giveaway of Babylonian presence), slingballs and much fiery destruction. Destroyed sites included Jurusalem, Ashlar House, House of Ahiel, Burnt Room and House of the Bullae. | |
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| Jerusalem Destroyed | 586 BC | Jerusalem destroyed by Babylonians. | |
| Gedaliah | 586-? BC | Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar installed Gedaliah as governor of Judah (ruling from Mizpah) immediately after Judah’s 586 BC demise, but Gedaliah was assassinated there (2 Kings 25:22). | |
| Persian Control | 538-332 BC | The period of Persian hegemony (538-332 BC) began when Persian king Cyrus seized Babylonia. Persian Control is split into Persian I (538-450 BC) and Persian II (450-332 BC), ending with Alexander’s conquest of the Levant (332 BC). | |
| First Return | Late 6th cent BC | Leading figures of the First Return of Jews to the former land of Israel were: the prophets Zechariah and Haggai; a member of the Davidic line, Zerubbabel son of Shealtiel; and the High Priest Joshua. The Jerusalem Temple was rebuilt ~520-515 BC. This period is attested in Haggai 1-2, Zechariah 6:9-15 and Ezra 3. | |
| Sheshbazzar | 538 BC | Governor of Judah. | |
| Zerubbabel | 520-510 BC | Governor of Judah. Zerubbabel, a Davidide, constructed a temple. | |
| Tattenai | 518-502 BC | Tattenai was a governor of Beyond the River satrapy. | |
| Elnathan | 510-490 BC | Governor of Judah. | |
| Yehoezer | 490-470 BC | Governor of Judah. | |
| Ahzai | 470-? BC | Governor of Judah. | |
| Second Return | Mid 5th cent BC | The Second Return of Jews to the former land of Israel was led by Ezra (458 BC) and Nehemiah (445 BC). Ezra began the return by forming a so-called purified community without foreigners (Ezra 7-10). When Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem, he had the Wall of Jerusalem rebuilt (Nehemiah 2-3, 4:15-17). There were conflicts with the current inhabitants of the land, including some remnants of Jews and the particularly troublesome Samaritans led by Sanballat I (2 Kings 17). | |
| Nehemiah | Governor of Judah. | ||
| Belshunu | 407–401 BC | Belshunu (aka Belesys I) was a governor of Beyond the River satrapy. | |
| Belshunu | 369-345 BC | Belshunu (aka Belesys II) was a governor of Beyond the River satrapy. | |
| Mazaeus | 343–332 BC | Mazaeus was a governor of Beyond the River satrapy. | |
| Alexander the Great | 332 BC | Alexander the Great seized the territory. | |
| Term | Overview |
| PPN A | |
|---|---|
| PPN B | |
| PN A | |
| PN B | |
| Plano-Convex Bricks | The PPNA is marked by plano-convex (like a loaf of bread) instead of hog-backed bricks. (link) Found at Netiv Ha-Gdud. (link) |
| Neolithic Revolution | The ~10,000 BC shift from hunter-gatherer to agriculture and possibly settlement. |
| Plastered Skulls | In the 7th millenium BC Levant, it was common to remove a skull from a corpse and plaster it to reconstruct facial features. Shells were set into eye sockets. Additional features were depicted using red and black paint. |
| Munhata | A complete coffee-bean-eyed figurine (unique to the Pottery Neolithic) was found at Munhata (near Sha’ar Ha-Golan) and in Tel Aviv. ( |
| Shaar HaGolan | A Neolithic village representing the Yarmukian style. |
| Coffee-Bean Eyed | Artistically, the coffee-bean-eyed figurine is unique to the Pottery Neolithic. It is a clay figurine of a seated woman with ample breasts, a large belly and a heaaddress; her eyes resemble coffee beans. ( |
| *****En Gedi Temple | During the Chalcolithic Levant, public sanctuaries were found at sites including En Gedi. (link |
| 2º Products Revolution | The Chalcolithic is marked by the secondary products revolution whereby instead of just killing an animal you can harvest wool, flax, wool and labor (leading to the invention of the plough). (link) |
| Teleilat Ghassul | A Chalcolithic site representing the Ghassulian style. It was occupied starting in ~5000 BC for 1500 years. It developed sanctuaries and other public facilities. |
| Rogim Hariri | |
| Shiqmim | In the Chalcolithic Period there was a public sanctuary at Shiqmim. (link) |
| Cave of the Treasure | It was used or inhabited in the Chalcolithic period (4th millenium BC) and contained many valuables, including crowns. |
| Apsidal Houses | During the Early Bronze Age I, houses were mostly either: apsidal, with a curve at one end; ellipsoidal, with both ends curving; or, occasionally, caves. (link |
| “Abydos” Ware | First found in an Egyptian royal tomb in Abydos, Abydos Ware has since been found in Egyptian royal tombs elsewhere as well. Abydos Ware is of Canaanite origin and indicates extensive trade. Abydos Ware was important in trading wine and oils. (link) |
| Lady of Gilat | From the Chalcolithic, depicts a woman on a stool birthing. |
| Cornet | This references the Chalcolithic sculptures of a ram with three cornets atop its back. |
| Arad | Occupied from the Early Bronze Age II onward. (link) |
| Tell el-Erani | Aka Tell el-Arani |
| Tell el-Yehudiyeh Ware | Unique to the MB III/IIC is: chocolate-on-white ware (~1,500 BC); discontinuation of red burnish; and Tell el-Yehudiyeh Ware, a conglomeration of ceramic forms featuring extensive anthropomorphism. (link) |
| Ebla | The Early Bronze Age IV was markedly different between the Northern and Sourthern Levant. The Northern Levant continued urbanizing, and the particularly sophisticated kingdom of Ebla even developed its own form of writing. (link) |
| Rampart Fortifications | Early Bronze Age earthen fortifications. |
| Amarna Texts | Reveal that the Levant was ruled by Egyptians during the Late Bronze Age IIA. Egypt fractured the region for easier control, but neglected to maintain infrastructure and so the city-states rebelled. (link) |
| Mari | Mari has provided more than 20,000 texts written in Old Babylonian, found in destroys remains of palace of Zimri-lin (~1,664 BC) and regarding adminsitration and royal correspondence. Primary source for identifying “city states” as actual kingdoms are the inscriptions found at Mari. (link) |
| Avaris | Amorite/Canaanite (Canaanites refer to Amorites coming from region of Canaan) center in eastern Delta. Settled from start of MBA. Largest Canaanite population in MB IIC. Known for its Minoan Fresco (a fresco with a heavy Minoan influence), Hyksos Scarabs and Tots in Pots (Canaanite tradition of infant jar burials). (link) |
| Kash (Uluburun) | A Late Bronze Age (14th cent BC) shipwreck found off the coast of Kash that has yielded many copper ingots and precious Egyptian goods. |
| Proto-Urban A | Early Bronze Age I “Proto-Urban” assemblages are regional. Proto-Urban A. Red Burnished Ware (RBW) found in north and south at Jericho, Azor (coast), Tel el-Far‘ah North and Bab edh-Dhra. |
| Proto-Urban B | Proto-Urban B. Line Group Painted Ware (LGPW). Central hill country |
| Proto-Urban C | Proto-Urban C. Gray-Burnished Ware. Esdraelon culture (Jezreel Valley and North). |
| Proto-Urban D | Proto-Urban D. Impressed Slashed Ware (ISW). Central and southern Israel. Transjordan: Umm Hammad. Probably earliest EB I assemblage. |
| Broad-House Plan | Common in Arad III, an Early Bronze Age II settlement. |
| Canaanean Blade | The Canaanean Blade first appeared in the EB I (no sooner), a blade with a trapezoidal cross-section. (link) |
| Caliciform Ware | |
| Nawamis | These are very sturdy stone EB I burial structures that are still standing in the Sinai today. |
| Khirbet Kerak Ware | The primary distinction between Early Bronze Ages II and III is the emergence of Khirbet Kerak Ware (KKW). (link) |
| Beni Hasan | A major Middle Bronze Age I/IIA source. The Beni Hasan reliefs are from an Egyptian monarch’s tomb, and depict: asiatics (Amorites) arriving with all their belongings; Semites and Egyptians peacefully interacting during the Middle Bronze Age; and a caravan of asiatic donkeys. (link) |
| Duckbill Ax | |
| Proto-Sinaitic | |
| Proto-Canaanite | |
| Canaanite Store Jar | |
| MB IIA | |
| MB IIB & IIC | |
| Hyksos | The Hyksos were Asiatics who invaded and ruled Egypt, resulting in the spread of look-alike Egyptian goods with crude Egyptian motifs and nonsense hieroglyph-like inscriptions. |
| Tell el-Erani | An Early Bronze Age Levantine town. |
| Dolment | A dolment is a megalithic (large stone) Early Bronze Age IV burial structure consisting of a horizontal stone atop upright stones. |
| Megiddo Ivories | |
| Sickle Sword | |
| Massebah | Aka massebaoth |
| Migdôl Tower Temple | Page 211 |
| Milk Bowls | Page 261 |
| Fosse Temple | Page 254f |
| Anthropoid Coffins | Egyptian-style anthropoid coffins have been found at Philistine cemeteries, attesting to the heterogeneity of Philistine culture. (link) |
| Tell el-’Ajjul | |
| Ugarit | |
| Hazor | |
| Ashkelon | |
| Four-Spouted Lamp | One regional item found only in the Early Bronze Age IV is the four-spouted lamp. Four wicks together burn oil four times faster than a single wick, and one explanation is that people began using fish oil, which burns dimmer than olive oil and required more wicks. (link) |
| Ledge Handle | |
| Fast Wheel | |
| Amorites | |
| Yarmuth | |
| Tree of Life Motif | |
| Execration Texts | For the Middle Bronze Age I/IIA, Egypt provides all major textual sources, including: execration texts; Tale of Sinuhe and Beni Hasan reliefs. The Tale of Sinuhe is an Egyptian’s autobiographical recount. (link) Execration texts were Egyptian clay bowls or figurines of bound human captives that were inscribed in hieratic with the names and locations of enemies. In an attempt to magically curse Egypt’s foes, powerful imprecations were recited and the objects were then broken. (link) |
| ‘Ain Samiya Goblet | Found at the Early Bronze Age IV site ‘Ain Samiya, the ‘Ain Samiya Goblet is a silver chalice that depicts Tiamat, Narnuk, other Mesopotamian icons, and even Mesopotamians themselves holding up a sun disk. This evidences a strong Syrian and Mesopotamian influence. (link) |
| Teapots | |
| Tale of Sinuhe | For the Middle Bronze Age I/IIA, Egypt provides all major textual sources, including: execration texts; Tale of Sinuhe and Beni Hasan reliefs. The Tale of Sinuhe is an Egyptian’s autobiographical recount. (link) |
| Six-Pier | |
| Equid/Horse Burials | |
| Philistines | |
| Merneptah Stele | The Merneptah Stele *~1207 BC) recounts Merneptah’s siege of Ashkelon, and provides the earliest mention of the Israelites. Thus, Israel likely formed within one generation of 1207 BC. (link) |
| Medinet Habu | During the Iron IA, Egyptian king Ramses III built the ~1180 BC grand mortuary temple for worshipping him. The temple reliefs mentioned various populations active at the time, including Pelset (Philistia). The reliefs showing the Philistia told of a war against the Sea Peoples. (link) |
| Philistine Bichrome | Regarding Philistia’s ceramics, Monochrome formed first, then developed into red and black bichrome on white slip. Birds, fish, spirals, concentric semicircles and chevrons were all motifs borrowed from an early 12th century BC Mycenean assemblage. In addition to Mycenea, other influences include Cypria, Egypt and local Canaan |
| Four-Room House | Early Israelite material culture (1250-1000 BC) is characterized by collared-rim storejars (very large store jars) and four-room houses (found at Jericho and Ai). Better known as an Israelite pillared building, this typical structure has been found around the country throughout the Iron Age (1200-600 B.C.). (link) |
| Collared-Rim Storejar | See above. |
| Sheshonq I | In ~925 BC, Shishak (Sheshonq) invaded and attacked towns in Israel and Judah (1 KIngs 14:25-28). (link) |
| Six-Chamber Gate | Solomonic six-chambered gates were gates composed of a hallway, which three hallways emanating from each side (a total of six chambers). Solomonic six-chambered gates were found at Gezer, Hazor, Ashdod, Lachish and Megiddo. While they represent a unified architecture, it is debatable whether these were due to a unified political structure. (link) |
| Palmette Capital | The palmette (aka proto-aeolic) capital was characteristic of Solomonic architecture, and arose stylistically from Phoenicia. (link) |
| Taanach Cult Stand | |
| Hazor X | |
| Megiddo V.A-IV.B | |
| Tiglath-Pileser III | |
| Black Obelisk | Shalmaneser III’s (858-824 BC) Black Obelisk depicts five scenes of tribute, including Jehu of Bit Omri (the earliest depiction of an Israelite). (link) |
| Shalmaneser III | |
| Sargon II | |
| Omri | Omri, commander of the Israelite army, had his opponents killed so he could establish the Omride Dynasty. From 885-880 BC, he ruled from Tirzah. In 880 BC, he bought the field of Shemer and founded Samaria as his capital. During this time, Judah was weak and may have actually been a vassal to Israel. (link) |
| Samaria Ostraca | Over 100 ostraca from ~770 BC were found at Samaria. Among the earliest among the ostraca date to the 15th year of the reign of Jeroboam II of Israel. They represent accounts of taxes paid (usually in wine and oil). They were written in a Hebrew dialect, but with Phoenecianisms such as the mention of old wine. Individuals mentioned are within tribal territory of Manasseh. Names include theophoric elements of both Yahweh and Ba’al. (link) |
| Samaria Ware | |
| Samaria Ivories | |
| Siloam Tunnel | Also known as Hezekiah’s Tunnel, the Siloam tunnel bears an inscription recounting how the tunnel was built. The tunnel allowed Jerusalem a continual source of fresh water, and as built in anticipation of an attack from Assyria. (link) |
| Broad Wall | The broad wall was a 8m thick and 8m tall wall built by Hezekiah to protect Jerusalem from the looming attack by Assyra. (link) |
| Lmlk Seal | Representative of Hezekiah’s reign, the lmlk seal denoted a jar belonged to the king and jars bearing lmlk seals have been found throughout Judah (although primarily at Lachish and Judah). These jars contained stores of food, in anticipation of the inevitable attack by Assyria. (link) |
| Moabite Stone | The Moabite Stone (aka Mesha Stele) is a ~850 BC stone, written by Moabite king Mesha, tells of Mesha’s liberation of Moab after 40 years of Israelite control by the House of Omri. It correlates to 2 Kings 1 and 1 Kings 3:4, “After death of Ahab, Moab rebelled…” Mesha mentions attacking Israelite towns in Gad and rebuilding Moabite towns, as well as possible references to House of David. (link) |
| Sennacherib’s Prism | Assyrian king Sennacherib’s (701-681 BC) military campaign and siege of Jerusalem are depicted in his ¢689 BC hexagonal prism. Sennacherib boasts of locking Hezekiah in Judah like a bird in a cage. (link) |
| Dan Inscription | The Dan Inscription (aka House of David Inscription) |
| Megiddo III | |
| Lachish III | |
| Megiddo II | |
| Lachish II | |
| Lachish Letters | |
| Arad Letters | |
| Pillar Figurines | |
| Tophet | |
| Khirbet el-Kom | The Khirbet el-Kom inscription |
| Kuntillet ‘Arjud | The Kuntillet ‘Arjud inscription |
| Khirbet Bet Lei | Khirbet Beit Lei is an ancient Judean site near Lachish that has yielded burial chambers, among which is a 7th/6th century inscription providing the earliest Hebrew reference to Jerusalem. The inscription is a Deuteronomistic blessing. |
| Khetef Hinnom Amulets | Two ~600 BC silver scrolls from a burial chamber at Khetef Hinnom, each containing a blessing from Numbers. These are the earliest known text of the Torah. |
| Achzib | |
| Ramat Rahel | Just a few miles south of Jerusalem is Ramat Rahel, which yielded 8th century BC lmlk seals from Judean king Hezekiah and proto-aeolic capitals (thus implying it was an Israelite administrative center). There was a tinge of Egyptian influence as well. (link) |
| Horvat ‘Uzza | |
| Arad Temple | |
| Kadesh Barnea | |
| Nebuchadnezzar | |
| House of the Bullae | The House of the Bullae, was a Iron Age public building in Jerusalem that was destroyed during the Babylonian campaigns of 587 and 586 BC. The House of the Bullae has yielded almost 50 very well-preserved bullae with Hebrew lettering (they were fired during the Babylonian destruction). (link |
| Scythian Arrowheads | Often left behind by Babylonians in huge quantities at their sieges. |
| Zedekiah | Zedekiah (born Mattaniah and uncle of Jehoiachin) was installed as king of Judah by Babylon (2 Kings 24:18). However, he rebelled against Babylonian control and Jerusalem was besieged. Records indicate the onset of starvation within 6 months of the siege, and the city burned thereafter. Zedekiah was exiled to Babylon. (link) |
| Gedaliah | Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar installed Gedaliah as governor of Judah (ruling from Mizpah) immediately after Judah’s 586 BC demise, but Gedaliah was assassinated there (2 Kings 25:22). (link |
| Yehud Seal | Found at Ramat Rahel were 250 yehud seal impressions dated to the Persian period (after the Second Temple was rebuilt in Jerusalem and Judah became the province of “Yehud” within the Persian Empire |
| Cyrus Cylinder | Following Persian king Cyrus’ 539 BC of Babylonia, he allowed return of the former Israelites to the land that had once been theirs. He described his good deeds in the Cyrus Cylinder in an attempt to gain favor with the Babylonian gods. (link) |
| Horse & Rider Figurines | These were found at Tel Dor. (link) |
| Bes Figurines | Found at Tel Dor, the Bes Figurine represented the Egyptian deity Bes. (link) |
| Ezra | The Second Return of Jews to the former land of Israel was led by Ezra (458 BC) and Nehemiah (445 BC). Ezra formed a so-called purified community without foreigners (Ezra 7-10). |
| Nehemiah | Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalm in ~445 BC as governor of Judah. He had the walls of Jerusalem rebuilt (Nehemiah 2-3, 4:15-17). There were conflicts with the current inhabitants of the land, including some remnants of Jews and the particularly troublesome Samaritans led by Sanballat I (2 Kings 17). (link) |
| Sanballat I | Sanballat I was the governor of Samaria and accused Nehemiah as disrespectful of Persian hegemony for fortifying Jerusalem. Sanballat I repeatedly attacked Jerusalem unsuccessfully, even trying to harness his inside connections to undermine Nehemiah’s efforts. |
| Abar-Nahara | |
| Four-Horned Altars | Sandstone blocks integrated into the walls of the storehouses were originally part of a four-horned altar. Three of the sandstone blocks preserved the shape of large horns typical of four-horned altars, while a fourth showed evidence that the horn had been broken off. Another of the stones bore the image of a deeply incised serpent. |
| Asherah Figurines | |
| Bamah/Bamoth | Bamah (aka Bamoth were frequently mentioned amidst 2 Kings when describing the religious reforms of Judean kings Hezekiah and Josiah. Translated as high places, bamoth were likely Canaanite sanctuaries and were not necessarily high up. (Hezekiah and Josiah) |
| Mizpah | Mizpah (modern Tell en-Nasbeh), capital of ancient Yehud, is where Judean governor Gedaliah ruled after being appointed by Babylonia. (link) |
| 1000 BC | In 1,000 BC, David conquered Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5:6-10) and and built a palace there using timber and craftsmen supplied by Hiram of Tyre (2 Sam. 5:11-12). |
| 930 BC | Under the reign of Rehoboam, the United Monarchy split into the Southern Kingdom (containing 2 tribes) and the Northern Kingdom (containing 10 tribes). (link) |
| 925 BC | In ~925 BC, Egyptian king Shishak (Sheshonq) invaded and attacked town in Israel and Judah (1 KIngs 14:25-28). (link) |
| 720 BC | Hezekiah witnessed the forced resettlement of the northern Kingdom of Israel by Sargon’s Assyrians in c. 720 BC and ruled the southern Kingdom of Judah during the invasion and siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib in 701 BC. |
| *****701 BC | Sennacherib’s campaign. |
| 586 BC | In Judah, the Jerusalem Temple was destroyed and elites (craftsmen, administrators, etc) were exiled. Many Judeans fled to Egypt (Jeremiah 42–44). This year is considered the end of the Southern Kingdom. (link) |
| 520 BC | The Jerusalem Temple was rebuilt ~520-515 BC as part of the First Return of Jews to the former land of Israel. The First Return was led by: the prophets Zechariah and Haggai; a member of the Davidic line, Zerubbabel son of Shealtiel; and the High Priest Joshua. (link) |
| 332 BC | |
| Samaria | |
| Metsad Hashavyyahu | Ostracon from Metsad Hashavyyahu |
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