Khirbet Beit Lei is an ancient Judean site near Lachish that has yielded burial chambers, among which is a 7^th/6^th century inscription providing the earliest Hebrew reference to Jerusalem. The inscription is a Deuteronomistic blessing.

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Jehoiachin (aka Jeconiah) (598/597 BC) surrendered to Nebuchadnezzar during the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem (2 Kings 24:8). Jehoiachin’s reign was ended after just 3 months when he was deported to Babylon and imprisoned (along with 10,000 other Judeans). Jehoiachin was released from prison when he was 37, but he remained in Babylon (as attested by Babylonian sources).

Judean king Manasseh ruled from 698-642 BC, beginning his reign when he was only 12 years old. Migrants from the destroyed Northern Kingdom had brought their Canaanite characteristics into the Southern Kingdom, despite Hezekiah’s reforms. Canaanite cults flourished, including astrology and Ba’al worship (Ba’al is a traditional Canaanite deity). Also, the name Manasseh itself is from the Northern Kingdom, which is unusual considering Hezekiah’s Yahwism. Manesseh grew desperate as Edomites and Assyria exerted pressure on Judah, even going so far as to perform the Phoenician practice of sacrificial infanticide.

No ceramic assemblage belongs just to the 10^th century BC (they continued into the 9^th). Cult stands of the 10^th/9^th century BC are exemplary. Red burnish is exemplary of 10^th/9^th century BC ceramics.

Before 742 BC, Judah (Jotham) is attacked by Damascus (Rezin) and Israel (Pekah) in an attempt to force Judah to join them against Assyria. But an attack by Assyrua upon Aram relieved Judah’s pressure.

Samaria was the capital of Israel and Sargon (721-705) had to finish the siege of it. Sargon finished the siege of Samaria, Israelites resettled in Gozan, in Media and possibly near his new capital of Dur Sharruken. Moves toward Turkey to Tarsus and Malatya on the Anatolian plateau. Moves to the east into Elamite and Iranian territories.Phoenician InfluenceTwo elements of architecture indicate a Phoenecian influence. There are the proto-Aeolic (aka Palmette) capitals, with their palm frawn motifs found in Phoenician ivories. Another Phoenician influence on Israel, evidenced at the capital, is the header-stretcher construction of the walls is a type of construction where the ashlers (cut stone, as opposed to ceramic bricks) are interwoven to provide earthquake protection. Ivories also show a strong Phoenician influence, particularly via the motifs of the throne carvings. This Iron Age Phoenician influence is a continuation of the Bronze Age Megiddo Ivories, which also show a Phoenician influence.

OstracaOver 100 ostraca from ~770 BC were found at Samaria. Among the earliest among the ostraca date to the 15^th year of the reign of Jeroboam II of Israel. They represent accounts of taxes paid (usually in wine and oil). They were written in a Hebrew dialect, but with Phoenecianisms such as the mention of old wine. Individuals mentioned are within tribal territory of Manasseh. Names include theophoric elements of both Yahweh and Ba’al.

Phoenician WareSamaria ware is a Phoenician pottery style.

When Assyrian king Sargon II (721-705 BC) died, Hezekiah stopped paying the tribute imposed upon Judah and allied with the Egyptians. However, Sargon II’s son Sennacherib (704-681 BC) invaded Judah in ~701 BC and his prism states the he conquered 46 Judean cities. Sennacherib came against the walls of Jerusalem and Hezekiah surrendered at a tribute of 300 silver talents (800 total were eventually procured) and 30 gold talents.

Hezekiah performed massive religious reforms to severely oppress Canaanite cults. This scale of opposition to Canaanite traditions was unmatched until Josiah’s reign 100 years later. He struck down bamoth (likely Canaanite shrines), masseboth (likely Canaanite sacred stone pillars) and Asherah poles (poles representing the Canaanite deity Asherah). Religious reforms do not just happen spontaneously; they happen in response to a pressure or danger. In Hezekiah’s case, the cause was the impending attack from Assyria.

When Hezekiah stopped paying tribute to Assyria yet again, he believed that Yahweh would protect Judah. However, Hezekiah also made practical preparations just in case: development of fortifications; storage of food in jars stamped with special lmlk seals; and protection of Jerusalem’s water source. The lmlk seal denoted a jar belonged to the king and jars bearing lmlk seals have been found throughout Judah (although primarily at Lachish and Judah). A notable fortification was the broad wall around Jerusalem that was 8m thick and 8m high (Isaiah 22:1-14). To protect Jerusalem’s water source, Hezekiah built Hezekiah’s Tunnel to bring water from nearby hills into Jerusalem (according to the tunnel inscription). In 701 BC, the siege finally occurred and Jerusalem was able to repel the Assyrians. Thus, Judah was free from being a vassal to Assyria.

Judean king Josiah’s (639-609 BC) prophet warned him of the doom that awaited Judah, as Judah had strayed from Yahweh. In response, Josiah instituted widespread and very dramatic reforms, striking down any Canaanite cultic edifices he could reach and even abandoning Canaanite burial practices. These reforms were arguably more extensive than those of Judean king Hezekiah. Regardless, the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem when Josiah rebelled against them.

Yahweh was the deity of early Israelites and was a precursor to the God of today. Yahwism emerged during Iron I due to contact with Midianite traditions. However, a Late Bronze Age text mentions a Yahwistic name Yahu of Shasu. Yahweh was sometimes depicted as having a consort named Asherah, although this polytheism was later banned under Judean king Hezekiah.

Tel Dan yielded the ~825 BC House of David inscription. Three basalt fragments were discovered that recounted Aramean king Hazael’s victory over the House of David and Israel.

Gezer is a site from ancient Israel that has yielded 10 monumental megaliths (possibly a Canaanite bamoth), 9 inscribed boundary stones (which allowed it to be the first definitively identified Biblical city) and a Solomonic 6-Chambered Gate (similar to those at Hazor and Megiddo). Also found at Gezer is the Gezer Calendar (~900 BC), the earliest known example of Hebrew writing.

The Moabite Stone (aka Mesha Stele) is a ~850 BC stone, written by Moabite king Mesha, tells of Mesha’s liberation of Moab after 40 years of Israelite control by the House of Omri. It correlates to 2 Kings 1 and 1 Kings 3:4, “After death of Ahab, Moab rebelled…” Mesha mentions attacking Israelite towns in Gad and rebuilding Moabite towns, as well as possible references to House of David.

Solomon (970-930 BC) (I Kings 2:12–11:42) did not engage in military campaigns as his father David had. Instead Solomon entered treaties, many of which involved large sacrifices on his part. For example, Solomon began a maritime trade venture with Hiram of Tyre (1 Kings 9:26-28;10:11,22); however, he also bestowed 20 towns in the Galilee to Hiram of Tyre (1 Kings 9:10-14). In a more advantageous treaty, Solomon married the pharaoh’s daughter as part of a treaty (1 Kings 3:1) and was granted Gezer as a gift (1 Kings 9:16).

Solomon established 12 administrative districts, not including Judah (1 Kings 4:7-19) and thus received tax payments of grain and food for each month of the year. These districts were old Canaanite towns that had been incorporated during David’s reign (II-VII) and also tribal districts (VIII-XII); Judah was not included. The district Ephraim was administrated by Jeroboam, who would later lead the split of the United Monarchy under the reign of Solomon’s son Rehoboam.

Solomon built a new temple (967-960 BC) (1 Kings 6:1-36) as well as a new palace (960-947 BC) (1 Kings 7:1-12) in Jerusalem. He also fortified Jerusalem, as well as many other settlements (1 Kings 9:15-19); in another defensive move, he acquired chariots, horses and gold (1 Kings 10:26-28). Solomon allegedly disgraced God by acquiring so many horses and so much gold (1 Kings 11:1-40), and the Old Testament offers this as a reason for the fractionation of the kingdom under Rehoboam.

Solomonic Architecture

Architecture under Solomon’s reign is signified by: columns crowned by stylized palm frawns (palmettes); an altar with many accoutrements (like at Tel Dan); and a long series of stone steps. These paralleled the temples from the Iron Age (Arad and Tel Tayinat) as well as the Late Bronze Age (‘Ain Dara). The palmette capitals (aka proto-aeolic capitals) were strongly similar to Phoenician architecture. Solomonic six-chambered gates were gates composed of a hallway, which three hallways emanating from each side (a total of six chambers). Solomonic six-chambered gates were found at Gezer, Hazor, Ashdod, Lachish and Megiddo. While they represent a unified architecture, it is debatable whether these were due to a unified political structure.

David’s capture of Jerusalem established the United Monarchy. However, David ruled from Hebron because Jerusalem was not the seat of Israelite power yet. David, like his successor Solomon, was essentially a warlord ruling a territorial kingdom, which requires a minimal of formal bureaucracy (forts/palaces/etc). David warred against the Philistines, whose movement to the east placed them in direct conflict with the Israelites (Exodus 12:41). In 1,000 BC, David conquered Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5:6-10) and and built a palace there using timber and craftsmen supplied by Hiram of Tyre (2 Sam. 5:11-12). Next, David embarked on a series of clockwork military campaigns. to defeat: Moabites (2 Sam. 8:2); Aramaeans of Zobah, led by Hadadezer (2 Sam. 8:3f); Aramaeans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-8); Hamath, indicated by a tribute by David (2 Sam 8:9f); Edomites (2 Sam 9:13f); Ammonites (2 Sam. 10:1-14; 11:1); and the Amalekites (2 Sam. 8:12). His son Abasalom attempted a coup (2 Sam. 16:15–18:18), after which David embarked on more wars against Philistines (2 Sam. 21:15–22).