| Theory | Overview | Challenges | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Invasion & Conquest | Albright, Bright and Wright’s invasion and conquest model regards the Biblical conquest narrative as historical, and that Israel’s emergence was led by Joshua and completed in his life. This model mentions destructions of towns, including Jerusalem (Joshua 12:10; Judges 1:21), Jericho, Ai and Hazor (Joshua 11:11-13). To verify this, destruction layers were sought at sites mentioned. | There are differences between Joshua and Judges, with Joshua presenting a utopia and Judges providing issues of failure. | |
| Gradual Infiltration | Albrecht’s 1929 model postulates that some Canaanites fled crowded centers, entering the highlands as pastoral nomads. This opposes the Biblical view of a group feeling Egypt. | The earliest Iron I evidence is from the 11th century in Wadi Feinan, making this theory difficult to verify. Most settlements were in the lowlands, not the highlands. This does not perfectly square with the Biblical tradition of the Transjordan from Numbers. | |
| Peasant Revolt | Mendenhall’s 1969 model postulates that disaffected Canaanite peasantry revolted against their overlords in the costal plain and fled inland. This presumes that people were being oppressed and viewed it as such. This relies upon the ‘Apiru in the Amarna texts being Israelites (ie, Amarna Letter 254 and 290. This is an essentially Marxist theory based on strict, non-applicable dichotomies: elites vs. peasants; rural vs. urban; sedentists vs. pastoralists; polytheists vs. monotheists. | It is rare that peasants of the ancient Near East revolted, per the battered wife phenomenon. Also, this view is based on modern standards. Not only were these urban centers still inhabited by sheep — people would often live right above their animals — but Mendenhall makes the difficult-to-digest notion that revolutionary monotheists had an epiphany and mobilized to escape from polytheists. | |
| Social Evolution | Finkelstein’s 1988 model relies upon an explosion of small, village-like rural/agrarian highland sites during the Iron Age I (1,200-1,100 BC). He argues that iron was used to carve out cisterns into the hill, from which water could be extracted; also, terraces were formed to allow agriculture and horticulture. | ||
| Ruralization | Stager’s 1998 economic model postulates labor shortages at the Late Bronze Age’s end due to North Kingdom empire and collapse of city-states. This collapse, combined with free land, free peasants and non-working land owners, was a catalyst for people to evacuate from Canaan. | ||
| No Israel | This minimalist theory uses the fact that so-called Israelites are actually Canaanites (based on material culture) and that an actual Israel did not arise until the Hellenistic period. | “Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence” — also, the Merneptah Stele is considered definitive evidence of Israel. |
Emergence of IsraelAt latest, pre-Israel emerged by the mid-13th century BC. Highland settlements appeared during the Middle Bronze Age as mostly farmsteads, terraced fields and rock-cut and plastered cisterns. Their material culture was distinctly Canaanite; this does not jibe with the Bible’s Exodus tale, which would have led to an Egyptian material culture. During the mid-13th century BC (Late Iron Age), settlements such as Hazor were being destroyed; Israelites claimed to have been the culprits, but other candidates include the Sea Peoples (too decentralized), Philistines (too far away) or ‘Apiru (likely Israelites themselves). The Merneptah Stele (1207 BC) is the earliest definitive mention of an Israelite ethnic group.
Below are some early mentions of the Hebrews in the Old Testament. Hebrew (aka ‘Apiru in Akkadian) was not a self-designation, so it is unclear if this truly referred to the early Israelites.
Below is a list of the Israelite tribes and their estimated populations, as gathered from Numbers 1.
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| Period or Event | King | Time-Frame | Overview |
| Emergence of Israel | Mid-13th Cent BC | Early Israelite material culture (1250-1000 BC) is characterized by collared-rim storejars (very large store jars) and four-room houses (found at Jericho and Ai). The earliest Israelite settlement was in the 11th</sup century at Wadi Feinan. | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Saul | ?-1,007 BC | The first Israelite king. | |
| Jonathan | Saul’s son Jonathan was victorious over Philistines at Michmash. | ||
| David | 1,007-970 BC | David’s capture of Jerusalem established the United Monarchy. However, David ruled from Hebron because Jerusalem was not the seat of Israelite power yet. David, like his successor Solomon, was essentially a warlord ruling a territorial kingdom, which requires a minimal of formal bureaucracy (forts/palaces/etc). David warred against the Philistines, whose movement to the east placed them in direct conflict with the Israelites (Exodus 12:41). In 1,000 BC, David conquered Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5:6-10) and and built a palace there using timber and craftsmen supplied by Hiram of Tyre (2 Sam. 5:11-12). Next, David embarked on a series of clockwork military campaigns to defeat various other population groups. | |
| Solomon | 970-930 BC | Solomon entered a treaty with the pharaoh (1 Kings 3:1) and inherited Gezer from Pharaoh’s conquest (1 Kings 9:16f). He established 12 administative districts, not including Judah (1 Kings 4:7-10) and ruled over neighboring states who pay tribute (1 Kings 4:21-28). According to 1 Kings 5:1-18, entered into trade and treaty relations with Hiram of Tyre (Phoenicians); cedar and craftsmen from Lebanon to Israel; wheat, oil and conscripted laborers from Israel to Lebanon. In 967-960 BC, Solomon built a temple in Jerusalem (1 Kings 6:1-36). In 960-947 BC, Solomon built a new palace in Jerusalem (1 Kings 7:1-12). Note how much more time he gave to the palace than the temple. Solomon bestowed 20 towns in Galilee to Hiram of Tyre (1 Kings 9:10-14). Solomon built and fortified settlements like Jerusalem (1 Kings 9:15-19). He also undertook maritime trade venture with Hiram of Tyre (1 Kings 9:26-28 10:11f, 22). In 1 Kings 4:7-19 there are brief descriptions of the 12 districts belonging to Solomon; one district for each month, so that taxes (grain payments) feed the king’s house year-round. | |
| Split of Monarchy | 930 BC | Jeroboam leads coup d’etat at Shechem against cruel king Solomon’s even crueller son Rehoboam. This splits the kingdom, with Jeroboam leading the north (retaining the name of Israel, containing 10 tribes) and Rehoboam leading the south (assuming the name Judah, containing the remaining 2 tribes of Judah and Benjamin). |
| Period or Event | King | Time-Frame | Overview |
| Early Divided Monarchy | 930–839 BC | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Sennacherib’s Campaign | 701 BC | ||
| Rise of the Edomites | After the Assyrian conquest, Edomites entered Judah in hopes of exploiting its land. | ||
| Egyptian Conquest | ~925 BC | In ~925 BC, Shishak (Sheshonq) invades and attacks town in Israel and Judah (1 KIngs 14:25-28). | |
| 1st Judean Deportation | 597 BC | This is the first of three Judean deportations by Babylonia. King Jehoiachin and Prophet Ezekiel were exiled to Babylon. Zedekiah was placed on throne. | |
| 2nd Judean Deportation | 586 BC | In Judah, the Jerusalem Temple was destroyed and elites (craftsmen, administrators, etc) were exiled. Many Judeans fled to Egypt (Jeremiah 42–44). This year is considered the end of the Southern Kingdom. | |
| 3rd Judean Deportation | 581 BC | Babylonia performed a third and final deportation of Judeans. | |
| Period or Event | King | Time-Frame | Overview |
| Jeroboam | After leading the 930 BC coup that led to his control of Israel (the Northern Kingdom), Jeroboam established a capital at Tirzah in Shechem (1 Kings 12:25). Jeroboam also created shrines with golden calves (Canaanite god Ba’al) at Bethel and Dan (1 Kings 12:26-33). Jeroboam implemented the Bethel and Ban public temples to service the northern and southern parts of the kingdom, respectively. Israel worshipped Yahweh, although worship of Canaanite god Ba’al eclipsed reverence to Yahweh. According to 1 Kings 12:26-31, Jeroboam appeased Ba’al worship because he was afraid otherwise his citizens would head to Jerusalem and wind up reverting to obliging the Davidic Dynasty continued by Rehoboam. He continued to build additional bamot (highplaces), public shrines reminiscent of Canaanite tradition. In ~925 BC, Shishak (Sheshonq) invaded and attacked towns in Israel and Judah (1 KIngs 14:25-28). | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Capital at Tirzah | 930-880 BC | Capital is at Tirzah in Shechem. | |
| Omride Dynasty Start | Omri | 885-873 BC | Dynastic unrest had plagued prior kings of Israel. Omri, commander of the Israelite army, had his opponents killed so he could establish the Omride Dynasty. From 885-880 BC, he ruled from Tirzah. In 880 BC, he bought the field of Shemer and founded Samaria as his capital. During this time, Judah was weak and may have actually been a vassal to Israel. |
| Capital at Samaria | 880-720 BC | Capital is at Samaria. Has a collection of ostraca and ivories, as well as a pool and a palace. | |
| Ahab | 873-851 BC | Marries Jezebel, daughter of Sidonian king Ethbaal. Built temple to Ba’al at Samaria. Built Jezreel. Ben-Hadad I of Aram Damascus invaded Israel after being bribed by Asa of Judah with temple gold (1 Kings 15:16–20). Aram Damascus was a major threat that kept Ahab engaged until he was killed in a battle. Ben-Hadad II of Damascus (with 32 kings) unsuccessfully besieged Samaria. | |
| Jehoram | 849-843 BC | In 850 BC he joined Jehoshaphat of Judah (874-850 BC) and king of Edom against Mesha of Moab (2 Kings 3); Mesha supposedly defeated (2 Kings 3). Ben Hadad (II) besieges Samarai (2 Kings 6:24ff) but siege lifted aftera period of time. Battles with Hazael and is wounded (2 Kings 8:28ff). | |
| Jehu | 843-816 | In 843 BC, Jehu led a coup d’etat against the Omride Dynasty (2 Kings 9-10). His coup was facilitated by Hazael of Damascus, who attacked Israel (Tel Dan destroyed) to create a diversion. Jehu was aided by the prophet Elisha, who anointed him king (2 Kingss 9:1ff) and thus ended the Omride Dynasty. Jehu killed Jehoram of Israel and Ahaziah of Judah at Jezreel. Also, Jehu killed Jezebel (wife of Ahab) in Jezreel. Sons of Ahab and all of House of Ahab were executed. In addition, Jehu slaughtered priests of Ba’al. In 841 BC, Jehu paid tribute to Assyrian king Shalmanesser III, as noted in the Black Obelisk. | |
| Jehoahaz | 816-800 BC | ||
| Jeroboam | 785-745 BC | ||
| Israel’s Demise | 720 BC | The Assyrians conquered Israel. | |
| Period or Event | King | Time-Frame | Overview |
| Rehoboam | 10th cent. BC | Judean King Rehoboam ruled from Jerusalem (1 Kings 14:21-24). After his crushing loss that led to the fractionation of the United Monarchy, he built fortresses throughout Judah. In ~925 BC, Shishak (Sheshonq) invades and attacks town in Israel and Judah (1 KIngs 14:25-28). | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abijam | |||
| Asa | |||
| Jehoshaphat | |||
| Jehoram | |||
| Ahaziah | |||
| Athaliah | |||
| Joash | 837-800 BC | Joash (aka Jehoash) stripped the temple to pay off Hazael, thus sparing Jerusalem preventing further damage to Judah (2 Kings 12 12:17). Also, Assyria attacked (and distracted) the Arameans and was thus seen as a savior of Judah (2 Kings 13:4). | |
| Amaziah | |||
| Uzziah | Uzziah (aka Azariah) | ||
| Jotham | |||
| Ahaz | |||
| Hezekiah | 727-698 | Hezekiah led massive religious reforms that oppressed Canaanite cults and favored Yahwism. Hezekiah’s faith gave him the courage to rebel against Assyria, eventually regaining Judah’s independence after a failed first attempt. A growth in literacy began under Hezekiah and continued through Josiah, as evidenced by an increase in inscribed items such as ostraca (shards used for quick notes), pottery (descriptive notes on the shoulders), inscribed weights, seals and bullae, amulets and inscriptions (monuments and tombs). | |
| Sennacherib’s Campaign | 701 BC | In 701 BC, Assyrian king Sennacherib (704-681 BC) underwent an extensive invasion of Judah. This resulted in his locking Hezekiah into Jerusalem like “a bird in a cage” as attested in Sennacherib’s hexagonal prism. | |
| Rise of the Edomites | After the Assyrian conquest, Edomites entered Judah in hopes of exploiting its land. | ||
| Manasseh | 698-642 BC | Migrants from the destroyed Northern Kingdom brought their Canaanite culture into the Southern Kingdom. Despite Hezekiah’s reforms, there was a flourish of astrology, Ba’al worship (Ba’al is a traditional Canaanite deity) and other Canaanite characteristics. Also, the name Manasseh itself is from the Northern Kingdom, which is unusual considering Hezekiah’s Yahwism. Manesseh grew desperate as Edomites and Assyria exerted pressure on Judah, even going so far as to perform the Phoenician practice of sacrificial infanticide. | |
| Amon | 642-640 BC | ||
| Josiah | 639-609 BC | His reforms were massive. Josiah rebelled against Babylonians so they came and destroyed jerusalem. | |
| Jehoahaz II | 609 | Son of Josiah; deported by Neco after only 3 months on the Judean throne (2 Kings 23:31). | |
| Armageddon | 609 BC | ||
| Jehoiakim | 609-598 | Jehoiakim (born Eliakim and son of Josiah) was installed as king of Judah by Neco. Judah became a vassal to Babylonians for 3 years and Judah was beset by its neighbors (including the Edomites). | |
| Jehoiachin | 598/597 | Jehoiachin (aka Jeconiah) surrendered to Nebuchadnezzar during siege of Jerusalem (2 Kings 24:8). He was deported to Babylon, ending his reign prematurely at only 3 months. The Temple was stripped yet again and 10,000 Judeans were deported from Jerusalem. Jehoiachin was released from prison when he was 37, but he remained in Babylon (as attested by Babylonian sources). | |
| 1st Deportation | 597 BC | King Jehoiachin and Prophet Ezekiel were exiled to Babylon. Zedekiah was placed on throne. | |
| Zedekiah | 597–587 BC | Zedekiah (born Mattaniah and uncle of Jehoiachin) was installed as king of Judah by Babylon (2 Kings 24:18). However, he rebelled against Babylonian control and Jerusalem was besieged. Records indicate the onset of starvation within 6 months of the siege, and the city burned thereafter. Zedekiah was exiled to Babylon. | |
| 2nd Deportation | 586 BC | The Temple was destroyed and elites (craftsmen, administrators, etc) were exiled. Many Judeans fled to Egypt (Jeremiah 42–44). | |
| Judah’s Demise | 608-586 BC | The destruction of Megiddo — armageddon — was in 609 BC under Josiah’s reign (2 Kings 23:29-30). | |
| 3rd Deportation | 581 BC | Babylonia performed a third and final deportation of Judeans. | |
| Period or Event | Time-Frame | Overview | ||||||||
| Early Bronze Age I | 3,500 to 3,050 BC | Contemporary with Late Predynastic and Early First Dynasty in Egypt. The Early Bronze Age I is marked by rural proto-urban (unwalled) cities. The EB I is continuous with the Chalcolithic, especially in the north. Houses are mostly either: apsidal, with a curve at one end; ellipsoidal, with both ends curving; or, occasionally, caves. Burial customs included: caves, most commonly; shaft tombs; charnel houses, where bodies were laid out like in a tomb; nawamis, field stone chambers which still stand in the Sinai today; and cremation. The Canaanean Blade first appeared in the EB I (no sooner), a blade with a trapezoidal cross-section. Later in the Early Bronze Age I, Egypt begins interacting with the Negev, South Coast and Sinai. There were regional ceramic families. A notable site is Bab edh-Dhra, inhabited from 3,1000-2,000 BC. | ||||||||
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| Early Bronze Age II | 3,050-2,700 BC |
Contemporary with Late I and II Dynasties of Egypt. The Early Bronze Age II is the Southern Levant’s first urban period. Notable Early Bronze Age II finds include the Tell Kineret Tomb, Arad and et-Tell (Biblical Ai). As the trade infrastructure developed, Egypt no longer required a permanent presence on the coastal plains. However, Egyptians had a huge presence in the Negev and Sinai to exploit the region’s valued metals, especially copper. Egyptian presence in the Levant is confirmed by Abydos Ware, a valuable pottery native to the Negev and Sinai that has been found in tombs in Abydos and other Egyptian towns. |
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| Early Bronze Age III | 2,700 to 2,300 BC |
Contemporary with III-VI Dynasties in Egypt. The primary distinction between Early Bronze Ages II and III is the emergence of Khirbet Kerak Ware (KKW). Construction of temples continued, with a highlight being the enormous altar in EB III layer at Megiddo. The crescentric axe (aka epsilon axe) is an unusually shaped tool that first appears in the EB III. The Southern Levant’s relationship with Egypt evolved: Egyptians were present in EB I; Egyptians left in EB II but continued strong trade; and in EB III, Egypt and Byblos (access point for Lebanon’s timber) began direct maritime trade and bypassed the Southern Levant. The Early Bronze Age III brought violence between Egypt and the Southern Levant, clearly evidenced in: the Wadi Mighar inscriptions; the 5th dynasty tomb of Ante at Deshahe in Egypt; other reliefs; and Autobiography of Weni, a text by a royal palace worker named Weni (2,373-2,296 BC). |
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| Early Bronze Age IV | 2,300 to 1,900 BC |
Contemporary with VII-XI Dynasties in Egypt. Also known as the Intermediate Bronze Age, the Early Bronze Age IV was markedly different between the Northern and Sourthern Levant. The Northern Levant continued urbanizing, and the particularly sophisticated kingdom of Ebla even developed its own form of writing. Meanwhile, the Southern Levant underwent a gradual urban collapse over hundreds of years, leaving behind few artifacts and no hints of writing. Unmaintained fortification walls eroded away, leaving cities unwalled. Some urban centers were abandoned, leading to a boom in rural settlement and pastoral nomadism. Pastoralism worked well because wool could be produced (eating the animal itself was rare) and there was a high demand for wool in Syria and Egypt. Below are possibilities why the Southern Levant de-urbanized during the Early Bronze Age IV:
Burial customs included: shaft tombs (Jericho); megalithic dolments, made of a horizontal stone atop upright stones (Golan Heights; Upper Galilee); tumuli (aka cairns), mounds of stone and debris (central Negev); cists, rectangular burials; burial caves; and pits. A notable Early Bronze Age IV structure is Beer Resisim, an encampment for an extended family or small clan. Beer Resisim was occupied over a ~400 year period for ~30-50 years at a time. Similar to Beer Reisisim is Ein Ziq, also located in an arid region that is now so dry that modern bedouins dare not breach it due to its utter inability to support life. Another important site is Ain Samiya, where a silver goblet was found that depicts Tiamat, Narnuk, other Mesopotamian icons, and even Mesopotamians themselves holding up a sun disk. This shows a strong Syrian and Mesopotamian influence. While Early Bronze Age IV ceramics fit well into the overall Early Bronze Age’s assemblage, there are some deviations: the wheel is limitedly used, indicating ceramics are purely practical rather than an art form; caliciform wares, a chalice arising from a North Levantine influence; painted or incised parallel lines; and a return of regionalism. One regional item found only in the EB IV is the four-spouted lamp. Four wicks together burn oil four times faster than a single wick, and one explanation is that people began using fish oil, which burns dimmer than olive oil and required more wicks. Also, presence of the fenestrated axe continues from the EB III. |
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| EB → MB |
After urbanism’s rise in the EB II-III and collapse in EB III, it returns in MB IIA-C.
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| Middle & Late Bronze Political Organization | Middle and Late Bronze Age (1900-1200 BC) political organization was limited to city-states with a high degree of complexity. The kingdom of Ashkelon has yielded textual sources attesting to several Amorite kings. Mechanisms driving Amorite spread included merchantile activity (trade ports developed into civilizations) and mercenary activity. Amorites moved into the highlands, which were perfect for cultivating olives and orchards; these highlands became the epicenter of power. | |||||||||
| Middle Bronze Age I Middle Bronze IIA |
1,900-1,700 BC |
Contemporary with XII and even early XIII Dynasties in Egypt. The Middle Bronze Age I (aka Middle Bronze Age IIA, with EB IV → MB I) was marked by an emergence of northern states, and the arrival of the new Amorite ethnic group (originating ~2,000 BC in Syria and later coalescing into an ethnic group). Material culture peaks ~1,700 BC, although fortified cities already existed: Tel-Ashkalon (~ 50 hectares, largest site north of Egypt); Tel-Burgah; and Tel-Kabri. A distinction of the Middle Bronze Age IIA is red burnishing, likely an attempt to imitate metal vessels. Egypt provides all major textual sources, including: execration texts; Tale of Sinuhe and Beni Hasan reliefs. The Beni Hasan reliefs are from an Egyptian monarch’s tomb, and depict: asiatics (Amorites) arriving with all their belongings; Semites and Egyptians peacefully interacting during the Middle Bronze Age; and a caravan of asiatic donkeys. |
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| Middle Bronze Age II Middle Bronze IIB |
1,700-1,640 BC | Contemporary with Late XIII Dynasty of Egypt. The Middle Bronze Age II (aka Middle Bronze Age IIB, with EB IV → MB I) was marked by emergence of southern states. As Egypt began to unravel, so did hegemony by its centralized government. Levantine Middle Bronze Age II developments include: fortification and enclosure of the water system in Jerusalem; and consistency amongst MB II/III gates, which are the weakest parts of a fortification. These two developments indicate that communities systematically addressed a common threat. Major textual sources include: the Mari texts, preserved by Hammurabi’s campaign in Mesopotamia; Alalakh VII texts in the northern Levant; many isolated tablets in the southern Levant, including Hazor, Shechem, Hebron and other. The 66 ha town of Hazor: had an upper and lower town over a 66 ha region; was mentioned in the Mari texts, differentiating it from Ashkalon; and yielded a handful of MB and LB cuneiform tablets. Timnah (Tell Batash), a town on the southern coastal plane, is another notable Middle Bronze Age II site. | ||||||||
| Middle Bronze III Middle Bronze IIC |
1,640-1,530 BC | Contemporary with XV Dynasty (Hyksos Period) of Egypt.. The Middle Bronze Age III (aka Middle Bronze IIC, with EB IV → MB I) was marked by the Hyksos kingdom emerging in Egypt and terminates when the Hyksos are expelled from Egypt. Amorites ruled much of the Levant until Hurrians from modern central Syria (mostly east of the Euphrates) pushed the Amorites into the nothern Levant. Long-distance trade was extensive, including maritime transport of opium from Cyprus to the Levant. Unique to the MB III is: chocolate-on-white ware (~1,500 BC); discontinuation of red burnish; and Tell el-Yehudiyeh Ware, a conglomeration of ceramic forms featuring extensive anthropomorphism. Major textual sources include: Hebron tablet; Manethos’ account of Hyksos’ rule in the Egyptian town of Avaris, preserved by Josephus in ~100 AD. | ||||||||
| Late Bronze Age | General textual sources for the Levantine Late Bronze Age include: temple and tomb reliefs and inscriptions from Egypt’s New Kingdom; and Late Bronze Age tablets, from Alalakh, Qatna, Hazor, Kumidi, Megiddo, Beth-Shean, Aphek, Ta’anach and more. | |||||||||
| Late Bronze Age IA | 1,530-1,470 BC | Contemporary with Dynasty XVII to Thutmose III in Egypt.. The Late Bronze Age IA: begins with Hyksos’ conquest of Egypt; continues through expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt; and ends with Thutmose III’s annual campaigns. The Late Bronze Age IA was highly destructive to the Levant, with over 30 sites identified as obliterated, and led to a population decline. The extent of Egypt’s fortresses in this region remains unclear, although by the Late Bronze Age II the Egyptians had built fortress way-stations and depots. Major textual sources include: the Alalakh archive from ~1,500-1,430 BC; Egyptian temple and tomb reliefs and inscriptions; and the Carnarvan Tablet. The Carnarvan Tablet describes how Levantine Amorite princes had divided up the land, pestering Egyptian settlements and causing Egypt to aggressively smite the asiatics. | ||||||||
| Battle of Megiddo | ~1,470 BC | During the ~60 years after Hatshepsu’s death, Canaanites mustered a coalition in an attempt to end centuries of Egyptian attack. The Canaanites met at Megiddo to fight the Egyptians, but the Egyptians discreetly took the Aruna pass and successfully sprung upon Megiddo from behind. After this, the Canaanites failed to coalesce again and resistance was on a mere local level. | ||||||||
| Late Bronze IB | 1,470-1,400 BC | Thutmose III to Amarna Period. | ||||||||
| Late Bronze IIA | 1,400-1,300 BC | Contemporary with Amarna period and aftermath in Egypt. Fortifications continued through 1,470 BC, but were rare by the Late Bronze Age II A (Hazor is an exception). Egypt balkanized the region, as it was easier to control vassals than to interact with the capital city of a territory. This decentralization of power led to de-urbanization. Mud brick fortifications quickly dissolved after a few winters without maintenance. Pastoral nomadism rose, as indicated by cemeteries found without settlements. | ||||||||
| Egypt’s Amarna Period | ~1,350 BC |
Egypt had solid control over the Levant during the Amarna Period (aka Pax Aegyptiaca), signified by the reigns of Amenhotep III and Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton). However, Egypt neglected to maintain the infrastructure of the region and city-states began to fight. This is evidenced by the highly regarded Amarna Letters Egypt neglects infrastructure maintenance in the region and the city-states start fighting. The Amarna Letters are very notable. Cuneiform tablet letters from ~1,350 BC from the court of Amenhotep III and IV at Amarna. Over 300 letters from rulers at Levantine towns to Egyptian pharaoh. International Exchange Networks! Evidenced by… Development of writing — a major development in age of booming internationalism Megiddo ivories — tiny furniture inlays and box components |
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| Late Bronze IIB | 1,300-1,200 BC | Dynasty 19 | ||||||||
| Bronze → Iron Age | Culprits for destructions at the so-called collapse of the Bronze Age: Aramaeans; ‘Apiru; other unknown groups; general social unrest; Israelites; Sea Peoples. The Philistines in Biblical Tradition: Bile (originate in Crete?) Arrive with Sea Peoples around 1,180 BC. Anachronistic references to Philistines in Gen 21:32-34; 26:1, 8, 14-15; and in Exodus 13:17; 15:14; 23:3. Story of Samson (Judges 13-16). | |||||||||
Dates based on 480 years before completion of temple in Jerusalem in 967 BC.
| Year | Citation | Overview |
| 1877 BC | Exodus 12:41 | Isaelites enter Egypt and sojourn begins. |
| 1447 BC | 1 Kings 6:1 | Israelite exodus. |
| 1447-1407 BC | 40 years (one generation) of wandering. | |
| 1,407 BC | Entry into promised land. | |
| 1407-? BC | Joshua | Conquest during life of Joshua. |
| 1350-? BC | Judges | Period of the judges. |
| ?-1007 BC | Saul establishes a monarchy and rules in Gibeah. | |
| Saul’s son Jonathan has a victory over the Philistines at Michmash. | ||
| 1007-1000 BC | 1 Kings 2:10 | David rules in Hebron. |
| 1000 BC | David takes Jerusalem. | |
| 970 BC | Solomon becomes king of Israel. | |
| 967 BC | 1 Kings 6:1 | Solomon starts construction of temple. |
| 930 BC | 1 Kings 12-14 | Jeroboam leads coup d’etat at Shechem against cruel king Solomon’s even crueller son Rehoboam. This splits the kingdom, with Jeroboam leading the north (retaining the name of Israel, containing 10 tribes) and Rehoboam leading the south (assuming the name Judah, containing the remaining 2 tribes of Judah and Benjamin). |
Yahweh was the deity of early Israelites and was a precursor to the God of today. Yahwism emerged during Iron I due to contact with Midianite traditions. However, a Late Bronze Age text mentions a Yahwistic name Yahu of Shasu. Yahweh was sometimes depicted as having a consort named Asherah, although this polytheism was later banned under Judean king Hezekiah.
| Location | Item | Time | Overview |
| Silwan Tomb | Royal Steward Inscription | 8th cent. BC | The Royal Steward Inscription states, “This is the tomb of …yahu who was over the house. There is neither silver nor gold here, yet his bones and the bones of his servant-wife with him. Cursed is the man who opens this (tomb).” |
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| Kuntillet ‘Ajrud | Ostracon | 8th cent. BC | On an ostracon, “Yahweh of Teman and his Asherah” |
| Khirbet El Qom | Ostracon | 8th/7th cent. BC | Yielded an ostracon with an impression of a hand and the inscription, “Uriyahu the Governor (or singer) wrote it. May Uriyahu be blessed by Yahweh, for from his enemies he has been saved by his Asherah.” |
The Moabite Stone (aka Mesha Stele) is a ~850 BC stone, written by Moabite king Mesha, tells of Mesha’s liberation of Moab after 40 years of Israelite control by the House of Omri. It correlates to 2 Kings 1 and 1 Kings 3:4, “After death of Ahab, Moab rebelled…” Mesha mentions attacking Israelite towns in Gad and rebuilding Moabite towns, as well as possible references to House of David.
The Merneptah Stele *~1207 BC) recounts Merneptah’s siege of Ashkelon, and provides the earliest mention of the Israelites. Thus, Israel likely formed within one generation of 1207 BC.
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