No ceramic assemblage belongs just to the 10th century BC (they continued into the 9th). Cult stands of the 10th/9th century BC are exemplary. Red burnish is exemplary of 10th/9th century BC ceramics.
Yahweh was the deity of early Israelites and was a precursor to the God of today. Yahwism emerged during Iron I due to contact with Midianite traditions. However, a Late Bronze Age text mentions a Yahwistic name Yahu of Shasu. Yahweh was sometimes depicted as having a consort named Asherah, although this polytheism was later banned under Judean king Hezekiah.
| Location | Item | Time | Overview |
| Silwan Tomb | Royal Steward Inscription | 8th cent. BC | The Royal Steward Inscription states, “This is the tomb of …yahu who was over the house. There is neither silver nor gold here, yet his bones and the bones of his servant-wife with him. Cursed is the man who opens this (tomb).” |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kuntillet ‘Ajrud | Ostracon | 8th cent. BC | On an ostracon, “Yahweh of Teman and his Asherah” |
| Khirbet El Qom | Ostracon | 8th/7th cent. BC | Yielded an ostracon with an impression of a hand and the inscription, “Uriyahu the Governor (or singer) wrote it. May Uriyahu be blessed by Yahweh, for from his enemies he has been saved by his Asherah.” |
| Period or Event | King | Time-Frame | Overview |
| Emergence of Israel | Mid-13th Cent BC | Early Israelite material culture (1250-1000 BC) is characterized by collared-rim storejars (very large store jars) and four-room houses (found at Jericho and Ai). The earliest Israelite settlement was in the 11th</sup century at Wadi Feinan. | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Saul | ?-1,007 BC | The first Israelite king. | |
| Jonathan | Saul’s son Jonathan was victorious over Philistines at Michmash. | ||
| David | 1,007-970 BC | David’s capture of Jerusalem established the United Monarchy. However, David ruled from Hebron because Jerusalem was not the seat of Israelite power yet. David, like his successor Solomon, was essentially a warlord ruling a territorial kingdom, which requires a minimal of formal bureaucracy (forts/palaces/etc). David warred against the Philistines, whose movement to the east placed them in direct conflict with the Israelites (Exodus 12:41). In 1,000 BC, David conquered Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5:6-10) and and built a palace there using timber and craftsmen supplied by Hiram of Tyre (2 Sam. 5:11-12). Next, David embarked on a series of clockwork military campaigns to defeat various other population groups. | |
| Solomon | 970-930 BC | Solomon entered a treaty with the pharaoh (1 Kings 3:1) and inherited Gezer from Pharaoh’s conquest (1 Kings 9:16f). He established 12 administative districts, not including Judah (1 Kings 4:7-10) and ruled over neighboring states who pay tribute (1 Kings 4:21-28). According to 1 Kings 5:1-18, entered into trade and treaty relations with Hiram of Tyre (Phoenicians); cedar and craftsmen from Lebanon to Israel; wheat, oil and conscripted laborers from Israel to Lebanon. In 967-960 BC, Solomon built a temple in Jerusalem (1 Kings 6:1-36). In 960-947 BC, Solomon built a new palace in Jerusalem (1 Kings 7:1-12). Note how much more time he gave to the palace than the temple. Solomon bestowed 20 towns in Galilee to Hiram of Tyre (1 Kings 9:10-14). Solomon built and fortified settlements like Jerusalem (1 Kings 9:15-19). He also undertook maritime trade venture with Hiram of Tyre (1 Kings 9:26-28 10:11f, 22). In 1 Kings 4:7-19 there are brief descriptions of the 12 districts belonging to Solomon; one district for each month, so that taxes (grain payments) feed the king’s house year-round. | |
| Split of Monarchy | 930 BC | Jeroboam leads coup d’etat at Shechem against cruel king Solomon’s even crueller son Rehoboam. This splits the kingdom, with Jeroboam leading the north (retaining the name of Israel, containing 10 tribes) and Rehoboam leading the south (assuming the name Judah, containing the remaining 2 tribes of Judah and Benjamin). |
Solomon (970-930 BC) (I Kings 2:12–11:42) did not engage in military campaigns as his father David had. Instead Solomon entered treaties, many of which involved large sacrifices on his part. For example, Solomon began a maritime trade venture with Hiram of Tyre (1 Kings 9:26-28;10:11,22); however, he also bestowed 20 towns in the Galilee to Hiram of Tyre (1 Kings 9:10-14). In a more advantageous treaty, Solomon married the pharaoh’s daughter as part of a treaty (1 Kings 3:1) and was granted Gezer as a gift (1 Kings 9:16).
Solomon established 12 administrative districts, not including Judah (1 Kings 4:7-19) and thus received tax payments of grain and food for each month of the year. These districts were old Canaanite towns that had been incorporated during David’s reign (II-VII) and also tribal districts (VIII-XII); Judah was not included. The district Ephraim was administrated by Jeroboam, who would later lead the split of the United Monarchy under the reign of Solomon’s son Rehoboam.
Solomon built a new temple (967-960 BC) (1 Kings 6:1-36) as well as a new palace (960-947 BC) (1 Kings 7:1-12) in Jerusalem. He also fortified Jerusalem, as well as many other settlements (1 Kings 9:15-19); in another defensive move, he acquired chariots, horses and gold (1 Kings 10:26-28). Solomon allegedly disgraced God by acquiring so many horses and so much gold (1 Kings 11:1-40), and the Old Testament offers this as a reason for the fractionation of the kingdom under Rehoboam.
Solomonic Architecture
Architecture under Solomon’s reign is signified by: columns crowned by stylized palm frawns (palmettes); an altar with many accoutrements (like at Tel Dan); and a long series of stone steps. These paralleled the temples from the Iron Age (Arad and Tel Tayinat) as well as the Late Bronze Age (‘Ain Dara). The palmette capitals (aka proto-aeolic capitals) were strongly similar to Phoenician architecture. Solomonic six-chambered gates were gates composed of a hallway, which three hallways emanating from each side (a total of six chambers). Solomonic six-chambered gates were found at Gezer, Hazor, Ashdod, Lachish and Megiddo. While they represent a unified architecture, it is debatable whether these were due to a unified political structure.
David’s capture of Jerusalem established the United Monarchy. However, David ruled from Hebron because Jerusalem was not the seat of Israelite power yet. David, like his successor Solomon, was essentially a warlord ruling a territorial kingdom, which requires a minimal of formal bureaucracy (forts/palaces/etc). David warred against the Philistines, whose movement to the east placed them in direct conflict with the Israelites (Exodus 12:41). In 1,000 BC, David conquered Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5:6-10) and and built a palace there using timber and craftsmen supplied by Hiram of Tyre (2 Sam. 5:11-12). Next, David embarked on a series of clockwork military campaigns. to defeat: Moabites (2 Sam. 8:2); Aramaeans of Zobah, led by Hadadezer (2 Sam. 8:3f); Aramaeans of Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-8); Hamath, indicated by a tribute by David (2 Sam 8:9f); Edomites (2 Sam 9:13f); Ammonites (2 Sam. 10:1-14; 11:1); and the Amalekites (2 Sam. 8:12). His son Abasalom attempted a coup (2 Sam. 16:15–18:18), after which David embarked on more wars against Philistines (2 Sam. 21:15–22).
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