Assyria now controlled the whole western and northern territory within the defensible boundaries of the Euphrates and Tigris, giving Assyria hegemony over the riverine trade routes. To the south, just east of the Tigris, the boundary between Assyria and Babylonia was formed by either the Lower Zab, Adhaim or Diyala rivers. Adad-narari’s hard stance on this boundary led to celebratory epic, one of Assyria’s first native literary works. However, this area was battled over innumerable times and fluctuated according to levels of Assyro-Babylnonian power.

Ashur-uballit I did not detail his own military campaigns, but his successors note that he thrust his military northwards into mountains that hid disruptive gangs, contained raw materials and held ideal horse-breding areas. These northern and eastern mountains (along the borders of modern-day Iraq, Syria, Turkey and Iran) are a recurring military theme throughout Assyrian history. Ashur-uballit’s great-grandson said that the security of his kingship was firmly established as far distant as the mountains (north Iraq) and that he succeeded against the forces of the widespread land of the Subarians (referring to general northerners) and a land called Musri (a vague northwest region).

Kadmukh natives, siding with the Mushki, crossed to the north bank of the Tigris to attack an Assyrian fortress there. Tiglath-Pileser I pursued the rebels, and along the way encountered skirmishes with the Papkhu people, who spoke Hurrian and resided north of the Tigris. He also accrued a few more subjects, included the Kaska people who had lived along the Black Sea coast to the west and were likely glad to be accepted by a stable power. He explored the territory where the Papkhu and many other small kingdoms existed (there was no major kingdom in the area) in anticipation of his next move.

Tiglath-Pileser I next took his chariots and main army across the Tigris and northwards into Papkhu territory. His troops carried their chariots in impassible regions. Although the Papkhu tried to battle the Assyrians along the mountainside, they failed and Assyria massively destroyed Papkhu territory before marching onwards north of the Tigris and into eastern Anatolia. Tiglath-Pileser I’s conquests are documented at only two sites in this region: the city of Melid whose capture he recorded, and also a rock he inscribed northwest of Lake Van and in the Melazgirt area: Tiglath-Pileser, strong king, king of the universe, king of Assyria, king of the four quarters, conquerer of the land Nairi from the land Tumme to the land Dayenu, conqueror of the land Habha to the Great Sea. He accrued booties of copper and bronze and tributes of thousands of horses, cattle, oxen and asses. Also, he deported captives to boost Assyria’s working population. Simultaneously, he tirelessly developed Assyria’s military chariots to unprecedented capacities.

To the WestAramaean disruption of the Euphrates, a main artery for trade and communication, was a formidable threat. To chase off the Aramaeans for good, Tiglath-Pileser I had to cross the Euphrates 28 times over several years. Once the Aramaeans were off of Assyrian territory, Tiglath-Pileser I was able to leave the Euphrates alone and penetrate the Mediterranean coast. To reach the shore, he crossed former Hittite territory (north Syria) and, on a separate occasion, he trekked through Tadmor (in the heart of Aramaean territory). Once at the shore, he exhibited Assyria’s fascination with the sea and excitedly took a boat ride. I made replicas in basalt of the nahiru, which they call a “sea-horse”, which with a harpoon, as an achievement of my own hand, I killed i the sea of Amurru-land at the command of…the great gods, my lords. It is unclear whether the sea-horse was a dolphin or whale.

To the SouthThe Assyro-Babylonian border remained sensitive. After several normal borer clashes, Tiglath-Pileser I responded by forcing through northern Babylonia to even defeat Babylon. Rather than occupy the territory, though, he merely raided the area and then left as a show of his might. Babylonia’s influence continued in Assyria, with Babylonian month names even replacing their Assyrian counterparts.

Tiglath-Pilser I, NaturalistLike other Assyrian kings, Tiglath-Pileser I was fascinated by foreign animals. Like other kings, he accepted apes, crocodiles and other strange animals as tribute; Tiglath-Pileser I even built a zoo to house animals that were gifted to him and which he had captured. There was rich fauna amidst ancient Assyria, with texts mentioning hunting of bears elephants, wild ox (powerful beasts as tall as six feet at the shoulder), hyenas, lions (up to 800 at a time, as they were a danger), tigers, leopards, deer, wild, water buffalo, wild pigs, gazelle, sheep, lynx, cheetahs, wild asses and onagers. He even attempted to breed herds of two-humped camels that had been sent by merchants abroad, as mentioned in his son Ashur-bel-kala’s Broken Obelisk. Assyrian kings also decimated the ostrich, although it has been rarely sighted in the 20^th century AD.

Also, people from the northern territories were deported en masse to labor in Assyria’s agricultural fields: 14,400 captives were deported from Hanigalbat, each person blinded in one eye; 720 captives were deported from Shubru (likely north or within the Tur Abdin) in four gangs each under an Assyrian foreman with an overseer responsible for the whole; 99 people were deported from the land Nairi (north of the Tigris, west of Lake Van); and 174 were deported from Kadmukh (between Tigris and Tur Abdin) under two Assyrian officials. These detailed records are taken from administrative account of grain and wool rations so that the laborers could eat and make their own clothing. Assyria had very precise oranization at this point: regarding a construction campaign, the total of foreign workers and the seven Assyrian officials in charge of them amounted to exactly 1,000.

During the reign of Shalmaneser I (Adad-narari’s son), Uruatri (later Urartu) was still a federation amongst the Armenian highlands. Shalmaneser I spoke of destroying 51 Uruatrian towns to squash their disruption of Assyrian hegemony. Some young men from Uruatri were enlisted into Assyria’s service and relocated. This marks a new phase in Assyrian policy that led to groups of people being shifted around on an increasingly massive scale; these persons could have been just slaughtered, but it was in Assyria’s economic interest to divide the people and let them live.

Bibliograpy

Saggs, 1985. The Might That Was Assyria.

Next, Tukulti-NInurta I charged south to Babylonia. After many boundary clashes, Tukulti-Ninurta I initiated a full invasion into Babylonia that was immortalized in a laudatory Assyrian epic. Assyria’s defeat of Babylonia was not like the defeat of northern barbarians, but rather a huge cultural coup equivalent to sacking Vatican City, Jerusalem or Mecca in modern times. To justify this, the Tukulti-Ninurta epic claimed Babylon’s tutelary deity Marduk had disapproved of Kashtiliash’s resistance to Assyria, thus deserting Babylonia and giving Tukulti-Ninurta I permission to invade Babylonia. This was symbolized by an image of Tukulti-Ninurta taking the god Marduk to Ashur, where Marduk was revered even after Babylonia recovered its independence.

After conquering Babylonia, Tukulti-Ninurta I moved the capital of Assyria from Ashur. His prestige had begun to wane, and rather than further displease Ashur’s citizenry with higher taxes (for construction labor) or land takeover (for space), he chose to revolve his government around a site on the opposite side of the Tigris: Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta. When Babylonia’s Nechuchadnezzer I o(1,125-1,105 BC) conquered back Babylonia and began the second dynasty of Isin after just seven years of Assyrian rule, Tukulti-Ninurta I’s claim that he had divine approval to take over Babylonia was shattered. After gross exaggerations failed to save his public image, his son (Ashur-nasir-pal) and the nobles of Ashur conspired against him. Tukulti-Ninurta I was removed from the throne, imprisoned in a building at Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta and assassinated. Tensions and conspiracy destabilized Assyria, leading to a decline in Assyrian power.

Bibliograpy

Saggs, 1985. The Might That Was Assyria.

During the Middle Assyrian Period, Babylonia exerted a huge cultural influence on Assyria. Enlil, a supreme Babylonian god paralleled in Assyria by the god Ashur, rose to prominence in Assyria. Adad-narari and his son Shalmaneser I both gave themselves the primary title governor of the god Enlil. Also, Babylonian dialect (not Assyrian) was used for the Assyrian royal inscriptions which became numerous from the time of Shalmaneser I. Ashur-uballit I 1363-1330 BC Ashur-uballit I established permanent control over northern Iraq, incorporated main cities of the region and added important agricultural ties to the north and east. He tried to establish Assyria as a powerful kingdom amidst Egypt and Babylonia. Enlil-nirari 1329-1320 BC Enlil-nirari I’s grandson described him as the one who widened borders and boundaries, indicated that Enlil-nirari I attempted to continue Ashur-uballit’s successes. At one point, Enlil-nirari is labeled the one who slew the hosts of the Kassites, referring to Babylon’s occupation by Kassites since ~1,600 BC and to Enlil-nirari’s response to Babylon’s failed attempt to make a vassal out of Assyria. Arik-den-ili 1319-1308 BC Arik-den-ili extended Assyrian borders for both expansionism and survival. An enemy from the Taurus foothills had reached just north of Nineveh, threatening Assyria’s heartland. Arik-den-ili not only defeated this advance, but penetrated the eastern Taurus (fighting the Qutians who dwelt there) and also advanced northwest to capture the Kadmukh plains that were west of the Tigris and bound by the Tur Abdin plateau.

Notably, up until this point, a pious Assyrian viewed the god Ashur as king; the ruler was merely his human representative. Thus, rulers were described as governors, overseers and supreme judgees. An Assyrian ruler only referred to himself as king when writing a letter, as did Ashur-uballit I. Arik-den ili, boldly departed from this tradition and asserted himself as mighty king, king of Assyria in formal inscriptions for the gods. Adad-narari up-stepped his father and referred to himself as king of the universe. Adad-nirari I 1307-1275 BC Adad-nirari I (aka Adad-narari I) annexed the Mitanni, but lost large parts of Mesopotamia to the Hittites. Regardless, Assyria now controlled the western and northern territories with the boundaries of the Euphrates and Tigris. Assyria now controlled the whole western and northern territory within the defensible boundaries of the Euphrates and Tigris, giving Assyria hegemony over the riverine trade routes. To the south, just east of the Tigris, the boundary between Assyria and Babylonia was formed by either the Lower Zab, Adhaim or Diyala rivers. Adad-narari’s hard stance on this boundary led to celebratory epic, one of Assyria’s first native literary works. However, this area was battled over innumerable times and fluctuated according to levels of Assyro-Babylnonian power. Shalmaneser I 1274-1245 BC Shalmaneser I re-conquered territories, but rather just killing the occupants he implemented an Assyrian administration across upper Mesopotamia and possibly the upper Tigris. Other novel policies of Shalmaneser I including adopting established merchants into a profitable Assyrian trading network, and deporting all others to serve as field labors in Assyria. Also, Shalmaneser I did his best to destroy the Urartian chiefdoms before they could pose a significant threat to Assyrian hegemony. Tukulti-Ninurta I 1244-1208 BC Tukulti-Ninurta I, Shalmaneser I’s son, first charged north to regain control of the rebellious barbarians in the northern mountains. He cemented Assyria’s control there and set up garrisons, but in a departure from prior policy he allowed merchant families to live. He adapted their trade infrastructure to Assyria’s benefit. Next, Tukulti-Ninurta I campaigned southward, invading and conquering Babylonia. This had a profound influence on Assyrian culture, as Babylonians, their gods and their customs swept across Assyria.

Tukulti-Ninurta I was the first Assyrian king to move the capital when he shifted the center of government to Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta. This was not only a strategic move, but also a way to mark his reign. However, when Babylonia’s Nebuchadnezzer I successfully revolted, Tukulti-Ninurta I’s claim of divine approval was discredited and he was thought of as an evil man who had cast destruction upon Babylonia. His son Ashur-nasir-pal and the nobles of Ashur rebelled by removing him from his throne, imprisoning him and then killing him. Assyrian Recension 1,207-1,116 BC Assyrian inscriptions for the next several reigns are very scarce. As inscriptions usually commemorate a king’s accomplishments to gain credit with the gods, this indicates that Assyria was relatively weak and inactive. This arose due to instability after Tukulti-Ninurta I’s reign, as evidenced by a series of relatively short reigns. In the ancient Near East, the public’s rare opportunity to make its opinion known is only after a king’s death. Thus, it is likely that revolts, disturbances and rival prince-led factions struggled for control.

Meanwhile, elsewhere, the Elamite empire rose under Shutruk Nahhunte (1157 BC), Kutir Nahhunte (1155 BC) and Shilhak-Inshushinak (1132-1127 BC).. By the middle of the 12^th century BC, it was Elam in southwest Iran (Khuzistan) that was the dominant power (not Assyria nor Babylonia). Also, migrations in the eastern Mediterranean had precipitated the collapse of the Hittite empire and attempts at settlement along the Levant coast. Babylonia’s Second Dynasty of Isin began under Nebuchadnezzar I (1125-1105 BC). The Assyrian Recension ended with the reign of Tiglath-Pileser I. Ashur-nadin-apli 1207-1204 BC The Tigris changed its course at Ashur during Ashur-nadi-apli’s reign, but fortunately returned to its prior bed due to royal prayers (and help from Assyrian engineers). Ashur-nirari III 1203-1198 BC Enlil-kudurri-usur 1197-1193 BC Ninurta-epil-Ekur 1192-1180 BC With Babylonian support, Ninurta-apil-Ekur usurped the Assyrian throne. This allowed renewed economic stability, giving his son Ashur-dad I the longest reign in Assyrian history. Ashur-dan I 1179-1134 BC Despite reigning longer than any other Assyrian king, Ashur-dad I’s inscriptions are scarce. There was a minor, local and typical Assyro-Babylonian border clash. Ashur-rosha-ishi I 1133-1116 BC Ashur-rosha-ishi I (aka Ashur-resh-ishi I) precipitated the Assyrian Renewal brought by his son, Tiglath-Pileser I. He embarked on consolidation campaigns in regions north and east that were under Assyrian, and also made infrastructure improvements after a damaging earthquake earlier in the century. Tiglath-Pileser I 1115-1077 BC Tiglath-pileser I sets the tone for the rest of the Assyrian empire. He was listened to because he presented himself as a direct pipeline to the gods. Tiglath-pileser I (1115 to 1077 BC) restored lands east of hte Euphrates. Crossed the Euphrates 28 times chasing the Aramaeans, according to his inscriptions. Reached Van Area and carved his image on the Tigris Tunnel north of Diyarbakir. Marched to the Mediterranean. The eocnomic concern of Tiglath-Pileser I is specifically mentioned in his inscriptions that he built up grain store, and increased herds.

Tiglath Pileser I restores lands east of Euphrates, campaigns in the Van area and leaves his image on a rock. Marches to the Mediterranean (Byblos and Sidon do hommage, went for a sail, caught a large fish, builds a cedar roof for the temple of Anu and Adad). Organizes deeds chronologically — the birth of the Assyrian Annals. As a good tourist he just wanted to honor the gods, knowing the Epic of Gilgamesh where one of the things is to go to the legendary cedar forest and bring back the trees, he does the same things and then builds the nice roof.

Tiglath-Pileser ended his military exploit description in he annals with a count of the wild animals (lions, bulls and elephats) he had hunted and killed. This reflects the heroic nature of the king, and is followed by the protective descriptins of his building activities. There is stress on his divine selection as aking and hsi blessedness, and that he did not enrichhimself with his spoils but honored and exalted the gods. 1076-1075 BC Brother of Ashur-bel-kala I, son of Tiglath-Pileser I. Ashur-bel-kala I 1074-1057 BC Ashur-bel-kala I (son of Tiglath-Pileser I) took immediate action in the north upon ascending the throne, but his government was too weak to implement an Assyrian administration there. Assyrian power rapidly declined due to the loose, growing population of Aramaean tribes. Despite being plundered endlessly by the Assyrians, the Aramaeans were too pervasive to be simply pushed back across the Euphrates. The Ashur-bel-kala I allied with the Babylonian king Marduk-shapik-zeri to fight their mutual problem with the Aramaeans. Upon the usurp of the Babylonian throne by an Aramaean, however, Ashur-bel-kala I chose to simply ally with the Aramaeans and treat them as vassals. This backfired when Ashur-bel-kala I’s son (and successor) was removed from the throne by his uncle Shamshi-Adad IV (another on of Tiglath-Pileser I), who had Babylonian support. Shamshi-Adad IV 1054-1050 BC Begin with Shamshi-Adad IV, there was a century of Assyrian instability and decentralization Ashurnasirpal I 1,049-1,031 BC Shalmaneser II 1,030-1,019 BC Ashurnirari IV 1,018-1,013 BC Ashurrabi II 1,012-972 BC Ashurreshishi II 971-967 BC Tiglath-Pileser II 966-935 BC Then under Tiglath-Pileser II (966-935) there was chaos due to prolonged drought, Aramaeans in the heart of Assyria and Sea Peoples in West.

Bibliograpy

Saggs, 1985. The Might That Was Assyria.

Class Notes, Carter 2009. Assyrians.